use j/k or left/right arrow
to navigate through the photos below
INTRODUCTION
Buddhavanam is a large complex in Telangana, South India, spread over 270 acres of land. It is about 150km south-east of the state capital, Hyderabad. It currently holds an educational theme park, which has many sub-sections, one of the largest meditation centres in India, and is projected to include monasteries, a Buddhist University, and health centres for the local population.
It was begun in the early 2000s, but faced many delays owing to changes in government, and eventually the division of Andhra Pradesh into two states. Work began in earnest only in the later part of the 2010s, and it was inaugurated and opened to the public in May 2022. It is still under active development.
The project was begun by Śrī Anjaneya Reddy, who was Chairman cum Managing Director of the Tourism Development Corporation for (the then united) Andhra Pradesh in the early 2000s. He is known locally as ‘the Patron’, for his high profile is supporting Buddhist projects in the state, he has been the spiritual force behind the development from the beginning.
Many Chief Ministers, first of Andhra Pradesh, and since 2014 of the state of Telangana, have been supportive of the project. The Central Government has also been supporting the project, and it is presently under the auspices of the Telangana Government.
Overview of the Park Under Construction
In the centre we can see the Main Stūpa, and in front of that the Buddhacarita Park. Behind the Main Stūpa we see reproductions of stūpas from around the Buddhist world. At the back we can see the massive artificial lake, the Nagarjuna Sagar.
THE MAHĀ STŪPA AND ITS RELIEFS
At the centre of the whole development and the main attraction is the Mahā Stūpa. The stūpa, measuring 21m high and 42m wide, emulates the basic features of the Mahā Stūpa at Amaravati but with significant differences. The present stūpa, for instance, is hollow with a meditation hall inside the stūpa itself; and below the stūpa is a space that will eventually house a virtual museum.
The basic layout of the reliefs on the stūpa is again similar to that found at Amaravati, but the reliefs have been inspired by the whole of the Andhran tradition, particularly from Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda, and from the greater Buddhist world in India and beyond, reflecting the influence of Buddhist traditions throughout Asia.
The stories on the reliefs illustrating the Life of the Buddha occur in roughly chronological order, but it is not exact. Here, in this collection, I have grouped them and arranged them in a more strict order, so a story can be followed through from section to section. I should note that there are more reliefs on the lower register, only one of which has been included in this collection.
The Stūpa Under Construction
THE SCULPTORS
The chief sculptor who worked on the reliefs is Śrī S.D. Hariprasad, an internationally acclaimed sculptor, conversant with the history of Buddhist sculpture, along with his son Śrī Harsha Vardhan. They and their team principally worked on the reliefs from 2017-2022, and they are still involved in discussions about the project’s development. They were advised by Śrī Veera Narayana Reddy, a Retired Indian Police Service Officer and a Buddhist scholar.
They led a team of around 100 sculptors who worked on the project. As the Amaravati school of art died out around the 5th–6th centuries CE, the first thing necessary was to familiarise the team by taking them round museums and sites where the original carvings were found, so they could inspect the works personally.
This included many field trips to Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Phanigiri, Goli, Kanaganahalli, and other ancient sites in and around the Andhra region; and to museums in Chennai, Kolkata and Delhi. They also studied the collections held in London and Paris.
It should be noted that most of the ancient sculptures, are no longer in situ, but exist in decontextualised spaces in museums, etc. It is also the case that the original sculptures are not, for the most part, the objects of worship any longer, but primarily attract tourists, students, art historians, cultural experts, etc. which, of course, further removes them from their original settings and intentions.
Most of the ancient reliefs were sculpted using limestone, but for the reconstruction, because limestone is not much used any more, sandstone, which is a more familiar material for the modern-day sculptors, was used. This was sourced, for the most part, from Malyala village in Andhra Pradesh, and transported to Allagadda, where Śrī Hariprasad and his team also have workshops.
Workshop in Allagadda
THE METHODOLOGY
With regard to the stūpa drum, where most of these reliefs are found, the team worked for around 2-3 months on each set of three reliefs. And a comparatively longer time on the Icons, which were much larger, and the reliefs on the lower register, for the same reason. The work on the 200+ reliefs took around 5-6 years to complete.
They were first drawn – or redrawn – by specialists, then they were computerized and printed out on special flexible polyvinyl, affixed over the stone, and carved by regular stonemasons, before the finishing touches, such as facial expressions, were completed by the master craftsmen themselves. 3D scanning was also employed when necessary.
The whole process and then its application in making the reliefs for the stūpa, which were made with advanced tools, including computers, print-outs, 3D modelling, and use of high-precision tools, such as diamond tipped chisels, just shows how incredible the artists of 2,000 years ago really were. With only basic tools, and drawing skills, they managed to create artistic reliefs which are still admired and reproduced to this day.
Work in Progress on the Left, and After Completion
THE FUTURE
From this we can see that the work has inspired local artists, as well as produced a work where the crafts can be seen in situ, which is a very different experience to the museum experience. Buddhavanam is therefore an educational tool for both Buddhists, artists, students and devotees, and serves to promote Andhran history and culture.
Regular religious events are also held at the site, such as Vesak celebrations, Tipiṭaka chanting, and teaching sessions, sometimes actively involving the stūpa and other features at the park, such as the Jātaka Park and the Buddhacarita Park.
As noted above it is planned that eventually there will be a university, and monasteries with resident monastics. There is already an attached meditation centre (Śrī S.N. Goenka tradition), which is one of the largest in the country, and which is regularly holding retreats for interested people.
NOTE
The identification of the scenes on the reliefs and the descriptions rely heavily on the Pāḷi texts that were preserved in Sri Lanka, and on Sanskrit texts that have been preserved in the northern traditions. This is unsatisfactory, of course, because it seems that the Andhran sculptors and their guides must have been drawing on texts known locally at they time, but now lost.
It does seem that most of the scenes that were not copied from reliefs that have been preserved were in fact based on known Pāḷi and Sanskrit texts by the modern-day sculptors.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My long time friend, and ex-monk, Śāsana Rakṣita first invited me to Andhra many years ago. At the time I was working on the Indonesian corpus, and only last year (2024) was I able to visit. By that time Śāsana was an Executive Director at Buddhavanam.
The Patron, Mr. Anjaneya Reddy, did many things to help make the trip a success. He is really a Mahā Upāsaka, who has done so much for Buddhism in Andhra, including starting the Buddhavanam project, which was his idea, and which he is still supporting.
I should also thank my kappiya on the trip, Mr. Tiong Ton, without whom I could not have made the trip, and who went to a lot of trouble to make sure that I was able to get around and take the photographs I needed to.
Ayyā Tathālokā Therī helped a lot in getting relative chronologies sorted out, and also proofread a large part of the document. Manfred Wierich made some great suggestions, which helped me expand the text, and make it more readable. Ms. Goh Poay Hoon also greatly helped with the proofreading and made a number of corrections.
I am grateful as ever to Handaka Vijjānanda, Andreas Dīpaloka and the Ehipassiko Foundation for the typesetting. To Handaka Vijjānanda for the translation into Indonesian. To Śāsana Rakṣita for the translation into Telugu. This helps the book – and, most importantly, the stories it contains – reach many more people than it otherwise could.
The first four photographs above are courtesy of Śrī S.D. Hariprasad and his son, Śrī Harsha Vardhan.
Ānandajoti Bhikkhu
April 2025
VIEWS OF THE STŪPA
A general view of the stūpa showing one of the Āyaka platforms, which are positioned at the four quarters. We can also see the lower register of reliefs below the platform, and the gardens that have been laid out around the stūpa. There are four main doors at the quarters, and a virtual museum is being built on the ground floor.
This photograph shows the beautiful golden decoration that runs around the stūpa, having scenes from the Buddha’s life and umbrellas on the medallions, and flowing out from them are garlands and other designs. On the left and against the skyline we can see the steps leading to the harmika which are there for maintenance purposes.
The harmika is a square enclosure that is erected on the top of the stūpa, representing a sacred space, and it is normally the depository of the Buddha’s relics, and other precious objects, like Dharma writings, gold and jewellery offerings, etc. The umbrella is positioned over it as a symbol of the stūpa’s exalted status.
One of the innovations of the Andhran style of stūpa architecture was the addition of the Āyaka platforms positioned in the four main directions. There are normally five columns, which have five main events from the Buddha’s life presented on them: the birth, the renunciation, the Awakening, the first teaching and the passing.
A view of the reliefs at sunset, with the Āyaka platform on the left. The reliefs are presented in sets of three, and we read right to left so that, as we go on circumambulation (pradakṣiṇa) around the stūpa, we read in the correct order, and then also we read from top to bottom.
This gives a closer view of some of the reliefs. On the right we see three auspicious reliefs, worshipping the stūpa, the Dhammacakka and the Bodhi tree. The second set of three show the conversion of Yasa, and of his family, and the Buddha sending the monks out to teach, all of which will be explained below.
BODHISATTA
THE BODHISATTA IN PREVIOUS LIVES
The Jātaka Stories record some of the Buddha’s previous lives in which he fulfilled the perfections (pāramī) over innumerable lives and immeasurable periods of time. Some of these are illustrated at Buddhavanam in a special Jātaka Park which has forty reliefs.
Here I have collected 16 of these stories beginning with the story of how the Bodhisatta began his career when he was the Brahmin ascetic Sumedha, and ending with his final human life as Vessantara, in which he completed the perfection of giving.
The stories here come from the Pāḷi collection, but there were other collections of these stories in Sanskrit, such as the Jātakamālā, the Divyāvadāna, the Avadānakalpalatā and so on. Some of those also are illustrated in the park, but they are omitted here.
Sumedha, a wealthy brahmin, renounced his fortune after his parents’ death, becoming a recluse. Gaining the super knowledges, he once saw a crowd clearing the way to welcome Buddha Dīpaṅkara. Offered land to clear, he lay in the mud so the Buddha could cross. Aspiring to Buddhahood, Dīpaṅkara prophesied he’d become Buddha Gotama. In the relief we see the central character of Buddha Dīpaṅkara, with flowers falling around his head. At his feet the recluse Sumedha spreads his hair on the floor for the Buddha to walk on so that his feet wouldn’t be soiled by the mud (see Jātakanidāna).
A brahmin prepared to sacrifice a goat at the Feast for the Dead. The goat, recalling its past lives, laughed, knowing this death would end its 500-life cycle of suffering for sacrificing a goat in a past life; but then it wept, pitying the brahmin, who would face a similar retribution. Despite the Brahmin making efforts to spare it, the goat died when a rock fragment severed its head. King Brahmadatta is seated on his throne. The goat is relating the story of his past lives to him (see Ja 18).
A clever monkey leaped daily onto a rock to reach a fruit-filled island. A crocodile, wanting its heart, hid on the rock. The monkey tricked the crocodile into opening its mouth, leaped over it, and escaped. The crocodile praised the monkey’s wisdom before leaving. Four panels. 1) Top left, the female crocodile asks its mate for the monkey’s heart; 2) top right, the crocodile waits on the rock; 3) bottom left, the monkey rides on the crocodile’s back; 4) bottom right, the monkey jumps to safety (see Ja 57).
King Mandhātā, a powerful ruler, reigned on earth and in heaven but craved more, even challenging Sakka, king of the gods. His greed led to his downfall; he fell to earth and died, lamenting his insatiable desires and teaching that power and pleasure cannot bring true satisfaction. The king is sitting on the throne with Sakka, the king of the gods, on the left, before he tried to displace him (see Ja 258).
A gentle buffalo endured a monkey’s torment with patience. When a Yakkha urged retaliation, the buffalo explained that true virtue lies in enduring wrongs from the weak. Impressed, the Yakkha removed the monkey and granted the buffalo a protective charm. Three panels. 1) Top left, a monkey teases the buffalo while another looks on from the tree; 2) top right, the monkey jumps on the buffalo’s back, watched by a Yakkha; 3) bottom panel, the buffalo explains why he lives by Dhamma. On the right, however, the monkey still appears to be tormenting the buffalo! (see Ja 278)
A hare (sasa), monkey, jackal, and otter prepared food to offer on Uposatha day. The hare, having no food, vowed to sacrifice himself. Sakka, disguised as a beggar, tested them. The hare leaped into a fire but was unharmed. Sakka praised his selflessness and immortalized him on the moon. On the left top we see Sakka, before his transformation. Beneath him we can see the monkey with a pineapple (rather than a mango); the otter with his fish, and the jackal with milk-curds. Above them we see the hare jumping into the fire. Presumably the three monastics we see represent Ānanda as the otter, Moggallāna as the jackal and Sāriputta as the monkey. The Bodhisatta himself was the hare (see Ja 316).
A queen, Kākātī, was abducted by a Garuḷa. The king’s musician, Naṭakuvera, hid in the Garuḷa’s feathers, found the queen, and later revealed the truth during a dice game. The Garuḷa returned the queen and left, never to return. Two panels. 1) On the left we see the Garuḷa carrying away Kākātī, even though the king’s men are armed and try to stop him; 2) on the right the musician Naṭakuvera is singing about his journey to the Garuḷa. Note that the Garuḷas are distinguished by the feathers in their turbans, which are set at a slant (see Ja 327).
The Bodhisatta, a corn merchant, cared for a snake-charmer’s monkey. When the snake-charmer abused it, the monkey escaped and ate mangoes. The snake-charmer tried to coax it back with flattery, but the monkey rejected his empty praise, declaring only kindness earns trust, and joined the wild monkeys. Three scenes. 1) Top left, the Bodhisatta is seen on a high seat here, with a halo behind his head. Below him the snake-charmer is asking him to look after his monkey while he travels abroad; 2) in the centre at the bottom, the snake-charmer beats the monkey; 3) above him the snake-charmer is pleading with the monkey who is hiding in the mango tree. Top right, the monkey flees into the forest (see Ja 365).
Prince Dīghāvu, the Bodhisatta, infiltrated King Brahmadatta’s court to avenge his parents’ deaths. When he had the chance to kill the king, he spared him, teaching that love, not hate, brings peace. Brahmadatta, moved, restored Dīghāvu to his father’s throne and gave him his daughter in marriage. Two panels. 1) On the left we see King Dīghiti and his queen being led off for slaughter; 2) on the right we Prince Dīghāvu disguised as an elephant trainer’s pupil, talking to King Brahmadatta. The important scene where Dīghāvu could have killed the king, but doesn’t, is omitted from the relief (see Ja 371).
Devagabbhā bore ten sons who overthrew their uncles and ruled Dvāravatī. They forgot their sister until reminded. Later, Vāsudeva grieved for his dead son but was consoled by his brother. A prophecy led to their downfall, and only their sister, Añjanā, survived. Nine panels. 1) Top left, the Brahmin’s prophecy that his daughter Devagabbhā’s son will destroy his lineage and country; 2) top middle, Upasāgara fell in love with Devagabbhā and they got married; 3) top right, Devagabbhā and her servant switched babies born on the same day so Devagabbhā’s son would not be killed; 4) middle left, Devagabbhā had ten sons and a daughter, here eight are pictured; 5) bottom left, they are looking on as two of their brothers fight and defeat professional wrestlers; 6) middle right, one of the wrestlers vowed to become a Yakkha, and so it turned out; 7) middle centre, the dearly beloved son of King Vāsudeva died, here we see him grieving over his son; 8) bottom middle, it shows the Yakkha form of the reborn wrestler; 9) bottom right, Vāsudeva has been shot by the hunter Jarā, and lies dying (see Ja 454).
King Dasaratha sent his sons Rāma and Lakkhaṇa and daughter Sītā to the forest to protect them from his new queen, who wanted her son Bharata to rule. After the king’s death, Bharata tried to return the kingdom to Rāma, but Rāma insisted on honoring their father’s command. After three years, Rāma returned and ruled righteously. Four scenes. 1) Top left, it is not entirely clear, but by the look on the queen’s face it is probably the queen demanding that her son, Bharata, inherit the throne; 2) top right, and 3) bottom left, both appear to show Rāma and Sītā going to the forest; 4) this is probably Rāma ruling righteously after his return from exile. A scene that is omitted is Bharata ruling with Rāma’s sandals on the throne (see Ja 461).
A merchant’s son, Mahādhanaka, tried to drown himself but was saved by a golden deer. He betrayed the deer for a reward, but the deer revealed his treachery to the king. The deer pleaded for his life and requested protection for all creatures, which the king granted. Three panels: 1) Top, there are three scenes, on the far left the deer is rescuing Mahādhanaka from the water, middle, the man is worshipping the deer, right, the deer walks away; 2) middle, Mahādhanaka leads the king to the deer; 3) bottom, Mahādhanaka meets with the king and queen. It seems the chronological sequence is actually 1-3-2 (see Ja 482).
Mātaṅga, an outcaste who possessed supernatural powers, was mistreated by Diṭṭhamaṅgalikā and her son Maṇḍavya. When Maṇḍavya and the brahmins were tormented by Yakkhas, Mātaṅga healed them, teaching humility. He later humbled a prideful ascetic and confronted the brahmins, leading to his death and rebirth in the Brahma Realm. Four panels. 1) Top left, Diṭṭhamaṅgalikā sees Mātaṅga on her way out of the city; 2) top right, Diṭṭhamaṅgalikā’s parents agree to her going with Mātaṅga; 3) bottom left, Mātaṅga asks Diṭṭhamaṅgalikā to carry him home; 4) bottom right has two parts to it, near right, Mātaṅga escapes Maṇḍavya using his supernatural powers, centre right, Diṭṭhamaṅgalikā seeks Mātaṅga’s help (see Ja 497).
The Bodhisatta was born as Chaddanta, a six-tusked white elephant, leader of a herd near Lake Chaddanta. His queen, Culla Subhaddā, jealous after feeling slighted, vowed revenge. Reborn as Queen Subhaddā of Benares, she sent a hunter to kill Chaddanta and take his tusks. Chaddanta forgave the hunter, who returned with the tusks. Subhaddā, remorseful, died of grief. Two Panels. 1) At the top we see two scenes, to the fore Sonuttara is sawing off Chaddanta’s tusks, though it should be noted here he has only two, not six, as in the story, in the background he is walking away with them; 2) Sonuttara presents the tusks to the king, while Queen Subhaddā dies from grief when she realizes what she has done (see Ja 514).
In King Brahmadatta’s reign, the Bodhisatta, an ascetic, fathered Isisiṅga through a doe. Isisiṅga, warned about women, lived devoutly in the Himalayas. Sakka sent the nymph Alambusā to seduce him. Isisiṅga succumbed but later repented, returning to meditation. Alambusā begged forgiveness, vowed never to tempt anyone again, and returned to heaven. Four panels. 1) Top left, the ascetic is in the forest tending the sacred fire; 2) bottom left, there are two scenes here, the ascetic is sat on the bank having relieved himself, and the doe is drinking the water which has his semen in it; and above that the ascetic is retrieving the boy Isisiṅga after the doe gave birth; 3) top right, Sakka sends Alumbusā to seduce the now-grown boy; 4) Alambusā is holding onto Isisiṅga (see Ja 523).
The Bodhisatta, born as King Duyyodhana, sought his retired father, who had become an ascetic. Inspired by the Nāga king Saṅkhapāla, he aspired to be reborn as a Nāga, achieving it through virtue. As Saṅkhapāla, he endured torture but was rescued by merchant Āḷāra. In gratitude, Saṅkhapāla took Āḷāra to his Nāga palace, where Āḷāra renounced worldly life, became an ascetic, and taught the king of Benares about impermanence and virtue. Three panels. 1) On the left we see the original Saṅkhapāla surrounded by his Nāginīs, who are distinguished by having only one hood over their heads; 2) in the middle we see Saṅkhapāla talking to King Duyyodhana and his court; 3) on the bottom right we see Duyyodhana reborn as Saṅkhapāla being captured by the villagers; while behind (top right) Āḷāra and his men get ready to pay a ransom for Saṅkhapāla’s life (see Ja 524).
The Bodhisatta, Dhataraṭṭha, king of geese, and his loyal commander, Sumukha, lead a flock at Lake Mānasa. Lured by King Brahmadatta’s lake, they migrate despite Sumukha’s warnings. Dhataraṭṭha is caught in a snare, but Sumukha stays, offering his life in place of his king’s. The fowler, moved, frees them. They meet Brahmadatta, who honors them, and Dhataraṭṭha teaches him virtue. The geese return, and Dhataraṭṭha later revisits to impart more wisdom. Two panels. 1) On the right we see Dhataraṭṭha and Sumukha visit the lake built by King Brahmadatta, and later, above that scene, we see the fowler carrying the two geese to the king; 2) on the left the geese sit on chairs and teach Dhamma to the king (see Ja 534).
Vidhura, a wise minister, was won by the Yakkha Puṇṇaka in a dice game. Puṇṇaka sought his heart to win a Nāga princess, but Vidhura’s teachings on righteousness moved him to spare his life. Vidhura’s discourse softened the Nāga king’s heart, and Puṇṇaka was granted the princess. Vidhura returned to his kingdom, was celebrated for his wisdom, and continued to guide his people with moral teachings. Five panels. 1) Top left, King Dhanañjaya and Puṇṇaka approach Vidhura and ask about his status; 2) top right, Puṇṇaka looks on at his cavalry; 3) bottom left, Puṇṇaka has Vidhura, holding the horse by his tail, taken to his kingdom; 4) bottom center, Vidhura teaches the Dhamma of the good man (Sādhunaradhamma); 5) bottom right, appears to show Vidhura holding the tail of the horse again, and dwarfs (gaṇas) listening to his discourse. It is curious that the dice game, so crucial to the story, is not shown (see Ja 545).
Prince Vessantara, known for extreme generosity, gave away his kingdom’s rain-bringing elephant, angering his people and leading to his exile with his wife Maddī and their children. In exile, he gave away his horses, chariot, and even his children to a Brahmin. Later, he gave Maddī to Sakka, who tested his virtue and returned her. Vessantara’s father found him, reunited the family, and the people, recognizing his generosity, welcomed him back as king. Five panels. 1) Top left, Vessantara is seen riding the marvellous white elephant; 2) top middle, Vessantara gives the elephant to the Brahmins who ask for it; 3) top right, Vessantara goes into exile with his wife and children; 4) bottom left, three scenes, on the left Vessantara and Maddī pull the cart after he gave away the oxen; middle, they carry the children after giving away the cart; right, Vessantara gives away his children to the Brahmin Jūjuka; 5) bottom right, two scenes, left, Maddī returns to find her children gone; right, Vessantara is reunited with Maddī and the children (see Ja 547).
THE BODHISATTA IN THE PALACE
For the story presented here and in the next section I have mainly followed The Great Chronicles of the Buddhas, which gives the fullest account of the Bodhisatta’s life from his conception and up and till he became the Buddha.
Mahā Māyā was married to King Suddhodana, one of the leaders of the Sakyan republic, whose capital was at Kapilavatthu. In this relief the Four Great Kings, two sitting, and two standing, look on as Queen Mahā Māyā sleeps on the couch in the palace. The musician slumped over his drum, who looks like he has fallen asleep, suggests it is late in the night. The disk indicates it is the Full Moon, in this case of July (Āsāḷha), when the conception took place.
After his last human life as Vessantara, the Bodhisatta was born in the Tusita Heaven. Here he is seen being beseeched by the other Devas to take birth again in his final life in which he will become a Buddha, which will be for the benefit of Devas and humans. The halo behind the central character indicates it is the Bodhisatta, who holds his hands in the fearless pose, as he sits in his vimāna (heavenly palace). All the Devas hold their hands up in reverential salutation (añjali).
After making the five great investigations as to the appropriate time, continent, country, family and mother, the Bodhisatta agreed to be reborn. He first went to the Nandaka Grove, where he reflected on his merits over his long journey in Saṁsāra. In the relief the white elephant, signifying the Bodhisatta, is being carried by dwarfs (gaṇas) in an elaborate palanquin or vimāna, as Devas look on and worship. This is a part of the descent of the Bodhisatta on the night of his rebirth.
Towards the end of her pregnancy, during which she had observed the eight precepts, including celibacy for the whole time, and had been protected by the Four Great Kings from any harm, in line with the customs of the time, Queen Mahā Māyā, before giving birth, wanted to return to her parents’ home at Devadaha in the Koliyan republic. At the king’s orders she was carried along the way in a palanquin, but before she got there she stopped to rest in the Lumbini Park, which is where she gave birth. This was 10 months after conception, on the Full Moon night of Vesākha (Vesak).
The queen gave birth under a Sāla tree in the park at Lumbini. In the relief the Four Great Kings hold a cloth on which the Bodhisatta has left his footprint. Queen Mahā Māyā holds a branch of a Sāla tree, and is standing while giving birth. Traditionally, it is said that the Bodhisatta was born from her side. He himself is not shown, as is common in the aniconic stage of Indian representation. There is an interesting figure kneeling in front of the queen and holding her hands to her face, but I cannot identify her. One of the Kings appears to have his leg over her shoulder!
In this relief a curtain is being held up around Queen Mahā Māyā and the tree as she gives birth, and the newly born Bodhisatta, after being bathed by two streams of water, hot and cold, takes seven steps declaring his greatness and his final birth, saying “I am the chief of the world, I am supreme in the world; this is my last birth, henceforth there will be no rebirth for me.” Under his feet seven lotuses bloom. The Four Great Kings are shown holding their hands in añjali behind the main figures in the relief.
After giving birth to the Bodhisatta, Queen Mahā Māyā was brought back to the palace in Kapilavatthu in the same palanquin she had been taken out in, holding the new born Bodhisatta in her arms. In the relief one man goes in front with an umbrella held aloft, as we see in both iconic and aniconic pictures, signifying the status of the child. Only Buddhas, Bodhisattas and kings have umbrellas raised over them in the iconography of this period. Another man carries water in a pot on his shoulders, and three men are shown carrying the palanquin.
Queen Mahā Māyā is seen here relaxing on a couch in the palace, shortly after returning to Kapilavatthu, following the birth of the Bodhisatta. Sitting with them is Queen Mahā Pajāpatī, her sister, who would take over the nursing of the child when, seven days after giving birth, Mahā Māyā passed away, as the Bodhisatta had foreseen. Mahā Pajāpatī herself had just given birth to the Bodhisatta’s half-brother Nanda. Fruits are seen in the basket below, and there is a drum on the left; attendants stand behind the central characters.
The newly-born Bodhisatta, just after returning from Lumbini with his mother, is seen here being presented to his father, King Suddhodana. The Bodhisatta is not shown, but is indicated by his footprints and the umbrella held over him. Queen Mahā Māyā holds the child up, while at the back musicians celebrate. Queen Mahā Māyā is shown with her attendants. At the foot of the stairs one of them is asleep on the stairway. The charioteer is shown behind the queen, with his customary head wrap and clothing.
The rishi Asita was a senior advisor to King Suddhodana. The king therefore wanted the baby to give honour to him, but instead, while being held up, the baby turned round making Asita honour his own feet. Asita knew from the baby’s marks that the baby would grow up to become a Buddha. Hearing this, the king worshipped the Bodhisatta for the first time. In the relief the king and queen are sat on the wide throne, while the king holds out the baby towards the rishi. The rishi has a long staff and, at his feet, is his waterpot. Two attendants wave fans behind the royal couple.
The king called in his eight Brahminical advisors to cast the boy’s horoscope, and also predict the child’s future. Most said he would become either a Wheel-Turning Monarch or, if he went forth, a Buddha; the youngest, Koṇḍañña, said he had only one course ahead: to become a Buddha. The Brahmins are holding astrology charts in their hands, which helps them predict his future. The king and the queen are again seated on the throne, and the child has his feet in the Brahmins’ direction. An attendant waves a fan, and a soldier stands guard.
Every year King Suddhodana would begin the ploughing festival which celebrated the onset of the sowing season. At one of these festivals the Bodhisatta sat under a tree and attained the first absorption (jhāna). Even well after midday the shadow from the tree remained over the Bodhisatta to protect him from the heat. The king, seeing these things, worshipped the Bodhisatta for a second time. We see a well-drawn plough and oxen working in the background, and a bird of prey flies overhead. The king and queen are worshipping on their knees. One attendant holds an umbrella over them.
One day the Bodhisatta and his cousin Devadatta were out in the forests and fields. Devadatta, seeing a goose, shot it down. The Bodhisatta got to the bird first, and would not let Devadatta kill it. A Deva declared that: “the life belongs to the one who saves it, not to the one who takes it.” The king and his court agreed with the Deva, which angered Devadatta who then developed a grudge against the young prince. In this life this was the first of the disputes the Bodhisatta had with Devadatta. Devadatta is shown with his bow and arrows on the left. The Bodhisatta holds the goose on the right. The king and queen sit on the throne, with attendants and advisors around them. For this story, see The Romantic Legend of Śākya Buddha.
King Suddhodana wanted to get his son married, and anoint him successor, but the Sakyan princes didn’t believe the Bodhisatta had the skills necessary to be a husband and a leader. So the Bodhisatta showed how he excelled in all traditional princely pursuits, like horsemanship, archery and wrestling, defeating all comers. In the relief the Bodhisatta is shown multiple times and engaged in various pursuits. The king and queen look on in amazement as his abilities, which were innate rather than learned, having carried over from his training in previous lives.
After he had proved himself by the other sports and talents, Prince Siddhattha proved his worthiness once again by being able to shoot the mighty bow that had belonged to his ancestors, but which no one was able to string or shoot. The Bodhisatta managed both with ease, and then went on to perform many miraculous feats of archery, at the end of which all declared him ready and fit to be married and rule. Although the string is not shown on this relief, it is being held by the Bodhisatta’s big toe. Men and women stand around and are impressed by his inherent strength.
The most beautiful and desirable of the young princesses in court was Bhaddakaccānā, Suppabuddha’s daughter, and the Bodhisatta’s cousin. She later became known as Yasodharā, “The One Endowed with Fame and Retinue.” Prince Siddhattha chose her to be his bride from all the other princesses, and put a garland around her neck to signify his choice. The Bodhisatta, now shown as a young man, holds the garland which he will place around the neck of his bride-to-be. To Yasodharā’s left and to Siddhattha’s right are other princesses. The other figures are attendants.
The Bodhisatta and Yasodharā, both with umbrellas held over their heads, are in front of the sacred fire, which is circumambulated at the marriage ceremony, and which signifies their union. On the same day he was also officially named prince and successor to King Suddhodana, and he was also consecrated with the sprinkling of water. Amongst the figures shown are the Brahmins who conducted the ceremonies.
RENUNCIATION & STRIVING
This continues the story from when the Bodhisatta decides to go forth to seek out the truth about existence, and up to his Awakening under the Bodhi tree at Bodhgayā. For the story, see The Great Chronicles of the Buddhas.
We now move on to the consequential events that led to the Great Renunciation of the Bodhisatta in this relief. The prince, who had lived his whole life in cloistered comfort, desired to see the world outside of the palace, and was taken in a chariot to the city. Although the city has been cleared of all disturbing sights, the Devas showed an old man to the prince; the prince then asked Channa, his charioteer, about it, and understood that old age was the destiny of all folk, including himself. The old man is shown hunched over and needing a stick to walk. The prince and Channa in the chariot. Others look on.
This relief is divided into two scenes, on the left the prince sees a sick man, and, on the right, there is a dead man being carried away on a bier. The prince was once again shocked to discover from his charioteer that this was the fate of all who lived, including himself. These signs sent the Bodhisatta into deep reflection on the suffering involved in life. The Bodhisatta compassionately holds the sick man in his arms, while Channa looks on. The dead man is being carried away for cremation by four of his relatives, amid cacti and broken pots signifying the thorns and dangers that beset the living.
On his next trip abroad the Devas show the prince an ascetic, living alone in a monastic hut (kuṭi) in a forest, who is seeking peace and well-being. After the other sights, this inspires the prince, and he starts to think about his own need to strive and solve the problems of existence. This he saw as both a personal and existential need that would help not just himself but others as well. The prince and Channa are seen in the chariot. The monk is dressed in a simple robe, with seemingly a bag over his shoulder. The wilderness setting is indicated by the hare and the parrot.
These sights had left the prince feeling very pensive. Then one night he went to the palace, and the female musicians and dancing girls gathered round him, but the prince found no satisfaction in them and he fell asleep. The women, seeing the prince was asleep, lay down themselves and took rest. When the prince awoke he saw the women lying all akimbo, and in various states of undress, and he was disgusted with the sight. In the relief the prince has woken up, while many of the womenfolk are asleep. This relief is found on the lower register, as the drum didn’t show this scene.
After seeing the womenfolk, Siddhattha decided he must renounce his home life, and seek Awakening. As he intended to leave straight away, before anyone can stop him, he visited his wife and newly-born child sleeping in their chambers, but fearing to disturb them as they might not allow him to go forth, he decided to leave without waking them. In this scene everyone except the prince is shown sleeping. Yasodharā has her arm around their son Rāhula, keeping him safe. The drummer has fallen asleep over his drum.
The Bodhisatta is shown as he makes his way out of the city helped by Devas who support the hooves of his horse Kanthaka so they don’t wake anyone as he departs. The whole relief is very dynamic and has an ambience of action as the Bodhisatta begins his long and forbidding journey from the comfort of home and into the wilderness. Channa travels along behind the horse holding an umbrella over the prince. One Deva is also seen flying through the skies holding a banner aloft. Others in this crowded scene are making various gestures as the prince heads on out.
When the Bodhisatta has crossed the river Anomā, he took off his jewellery and turban, signs of his princely status, and handed them to his charioteer Channa, telling him to take them back to the palace, and to tell his family of his renunciation, and his quest for the truth. The turban, however, was taken by the Devas along with his hair to heaven. The prince is now shown without his royal attire. The river is shown, and the wilderness is indicated by the trees and the foliage. Channa will take his jewellery back to the palace.
A large ensemble relief showing the taking of the Bodhisatta’s turban to heaven by Sakka, the Lord of the Gods, where he built the one-league high Hair and Jewel Shrine (Cūḷāmaṇicetiya) to house and worship the relics. In the relief we see Sakka and four other Devas are holding the basket carrying the turban aloft, some are already in flight. One of the characters at the feet of Sakka is a gaṇa (dwarf). Many of those present worship at Sakka takes the relics away.
The Bodhisatta cut off his hair, the final remnant of his royal status, and swapped clothes with a hunter, giving his luxurious clothes for the hunter’s very rough-made garments. In some tellings of the same story Brahma Ghaṭikāra took his clothes to heaven and built the Clothes Shrine (Dussacetiya). We see the hunter’s bow and arrows on the floor, as his intended victims, the deer, roam through the forest. When the Bodhisatta cut his hair, according to tradition it formed into the distinctive curls, with the wisdom crown on top and remained like that for the rest of his life. For the story of the hunter see the Buddhacarita.
After renouncing, the Bodhisatta went to Rājagaha, and walked around the city for a collection of alms. His demeanour was so inspiring that the people reported it to King Bimbisāra, who followed the Bodhisatta when he retired to take his almsfood. The king offered him half his kingdom, but the Bodhisatta refused. The king then requested that he come and teach him when he had Awakened, to which he agreed. In the relief we see that King Bimbisāra has dismounted and laid aside his sword, and is listening to the Bodhisatta.
The Bodhisatta was still looking to find a teacher who might help him in his quest, when he met Āḷāra Kālāma, a dedicated ascetic, who had attained the absorption in the sphere of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana). After the Bodhisatta attained similar levels, Āḷāra offered to share the leadership of his group, but the Bodhisatta was not satisfied, as he hadn’t yet attained Awakening, and decided to leave and continue his quest. We see Āḷāra and four of his disciples, representing his Saṅgha, and, on the left, the Bodhisatta.
The Bodhisatta next met with Uddaka Rāmaputta, whose father’s attainments were even higher than Āḷāra’s, having attained the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception (nevasaññānāsaññāyatana). Again the Bodhisatta easily attained the same levels, and Rāmaputta offered the Bodhisatta sole leadership of his group, but again the Bodhisatta realised this was not what he was aspiring to, and decided to leave the group and continue his quest for Full Awakening.
The Bodhisatta continued his journey and eventually came to the remote district of Uruvelā, where, after being joined by the group-of-five disciples, he engaged in his life of striving (dukkharacariyā), taking increasingly less food, and suppressing breath and thoughts. Even though he continued in this practice for six years he still came no closer to Awakening, and eventually he realised this also was not the way he had been looking for, and he decided to abandon the strict austerities.
Seeing him accepting food and regaining weight the group-of-five concluded that he had given up striving altogether, and decided to leave him. The Bodhisatta, though, had not given up, he was trying a new and unheard of path: the middle way, avoiding all extremes. There is a certain disdain in the looks on the faces of the group-of-five in this relief. The Bodhisatta sits with his almsbowl in his hand ready to take enough food to sustain his practice.
Through his austere striving the Bodhisatta had been reduced to a skeleton. He then recalibrated his thoughts, and decided to accept enough food to maintain his body, so that he would have enough balanced strength to find the right path. It was then that the Lady Sujātā offered him highly refined milk-rice, which he accepted, thereby regaining his strength. In the relief Sujātā kneels in front of the Bodhisatta, whose body had become emaciated through his extreme practice. The other figures in the relief are Sujātā’s handmaidens.
On the way to the Bodhi tree, the Bodhisatta met with the grass-cutter Sotthiya, who offered him eight bundles of sacred kuśa grass so he could make a seat at the Bodhi tree and continue his practice. In the relief we see the Nerañjarā river pictured on the right, with lotuses and fish in it. Sotthiya stands in front of the Bodhisatta and is offering a large bundle of grass, which the Bodhisatta gladly accepts. The grass will become his invincible (aparājita) throne, upon which he will finally Awaken.
Māra, realising that the Bodhisatta was on the edge of Awakening, decided to put all his forces into preventing it. Seated on his elephant Girimekhala he led his troupe, who tried everything to interrupt the quest for Awakening. Even the Devas who had gathered round the Bodhisatta, and were awaiting his Awakening, could not withstand Māra, and they withdrew. Ultimately, of course, Māra’s forces failed to disrupt the Bodhisatta’s resolve, and they had to leave the scene. In this attack scene we see three elephants, a lion and a giant snake. There are various weapons portrayed: swords, pikes and spears.
Māra and his army failed to dislodge the Bodhisatta, so Māra next sent his three beautiful daughters, Taṇhā, Aratī and Ragā, to try and tempt him. They danced in front of him and made lewd gestures, but again they failed as the Bodhisatta’s mind was firmly set on Awakening, and he was not distracted from his purpose.
One famous scene that is missing here is where Māra questions the Bodhisatta’s right to sit on his throne. In response the Bodhisatta calls on the earth to give witness to his achievements.
BUDDHA
THE AWAKENING AND AFTER
This section begins with the Awakening, then moves on to the early years of the Buddha’s teaching career: his first discourse, conversion in the first rains retreat, being joined by the Chief Disciples, and his journey back to teach his family. The story is told in The Great Chronicles of the Buddhas.
After defeating Māra and all his forces before sunset the Bodhisatta gained the knowledge of past existences in the first watch of the night; knowledge of the divine eye in which he saw how beings arise and fall away according to their deeds in the middle watch and knowledge of the extinction of the pollutants in the last watch, and at that point he became a Buddha. In this relief we see the Buddha is still sitting on his grass seat under the Bodhi tree, while all around Devas and humans express their adulation for his achievement. Flowers fall from the sky indicating how auspicious this event is.
The newly-Awakened Buddha spent the next seven weeks in the vicinity of the Bodhi tree, the first week enjoying the bliss of Awakening; the second expressing his gratitude to the Bodhi tree; the third on a jewelled walkway; the fourth at the treasure house, reviewing the Abhidhamma; and the fifth at the Ajapāla banyan tree. In the sixth week after the Awakening a great storm rose up in Magadha, and the Nāga-king Mucilinda coiled himself around and above the Buddha to protect him from the inclement weather. This is the scene shown here, where the Nāga is pictured with seven heads.
The merchants Tapussa and Bhallika, who were passing nearby the Bodhi tree, were informed by a Deva – a previous relative – that the Buddha had Awakened, and that it would be advantageous if they were to make offerings to him. They therefore offered rice-cakes and honey, and went for the double refuge to the Buddha and the Dhamma (the Saṅgha not being formed at this early stage). The Buddha also gave them a few strands of his hair, which they later built a stūpa over, when they had returned home.
After attaining Awakening the Buddha hesitated to teach, fearing the Dhamma was too deep for people to understand. The Brahma Sahampati, realising this, and fearing the loss, came down and requested the Buddha to teach the Dhamma for the welfare of Devas and humans. After investigating, the Buddha realised that some would be able to understand and so he agreed. In the relief Mahā Brahma is portrayed with long hair and a beard. The Buddha is shown reflecting on his request.
The Buddha first thought of teaching his previous teachiers: Āḷāra and Rāmaputta, but by his divine vision he understood that they had passed away. So then he thought of the group-of-five, who had been with him during his striving, and seeing they were at Isipatana, outside Bārāṇasī, he went there and taught them the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta, the Discourse Setting the Dharma Wheel in Motion, which sets out the central teachings which he had discovered: the Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
After the Awakening of the group-of-five had been accomplished in the first week of the Rains Retreat with the teaching of the Discourse on the Characteristics of Non-Self (Anattalakkhaṇasutta), Yasa, a young man of good family, came to the Deer Park, and hearing the Buddha teach also attained Stream-Entry and requested ordination. The relief shows the Buddha and his five Arahat disciples, and Yasa on his knees requesting ordination which will be given him with the simple “Come, Monk” (“Ehi Bhikkhu”) formula.
Later, Yasa’s mother noticed that her son was not in the home, and reported this to his father, who came looking for him. When he approached, the Buddha hid Yasa from the father’s sight so he wouldn't be distracted by the sight of his son. The Buddha then taught his father, who also attained Stream-Entry. Yasa, hearing the same teaching, became an Arahat. Yasa’s whole family then came to listen to the Buddha’s teaching, and they all went for refuge to the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dhamma, Saṅgha), being the first in this Sāsana to do so.
At the end of the Rains Retreat there were already 61 Arahats in the world, the Buddha himself, the group-of-five, Yasa and 54 of his friends. The Buddha, thinking of the welfare of Devas and humans sent them out in the eight directions to teach the Dhamma, including the threefold training of morality (sīla), concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā), in the towns and villages. He asked that not two should go in the same direction so more people could be reached.
The Buddha himself returned to the Gayā area, and there he converted first the fire worshipper, Uruvelā Kassapa, and then his two brothers, and all their 1,000 followers, with a display of miracles. In the relief, on the left bank the Buddha is instructing Uruvelā Kassapa; and on the right bank we see monks shaving the heads of Nadī and Gayā Kassapa. The curious figure in the waters of the river, may be Uruvelā Kassapa, undergoing cleansing, but we would have expected the discarded utensils the fire-worshippers threw away after conversion.
Keeping his promise to King Bimbisāra, the Buddha, along with his newly converted 1,000 Arahat monks, returned to Rājagaha, so the king would have an opportunity to listen to the Dhamma. Together with 120,000 householders the king came out to greet the Buddha. He was then able to fulfil his five aspirations: to become king, to meet a Buddha, to pay homage to him, to listen to Dhamma and to understand it. In the relief the king and the queen stand outside the city gates, while the Buddha and his monastics prepare to enter the city.
King Bimbisāra was very pleased with the Buddha’s teaching and offered him the pleasure park at Veḷuvana (Bamboo Park) for a monastery. The park was not too close to the city, providing seclusion, and was not too far away, meaning the citizens could hear the Buddha teach. This usually marks the establishment of the Sāsana, and many biographies break off at this point. In the relief we see the king pouring the waters of donation over the Buddha’s hands. Behind the king are his queens and umbrella-bearer. In the background we can see the bamboo trees.
Upatissa (later Sāriputta) and Kolita (Moggallāna) were two friends who had made a pact that when either of them learned the true Dharma they would share with the other. One day Upatissa got a short teaching from Bhikkhu Assajī, one of the group-of-five, and immediately understood its significance. He then told his friend and together with their followers they went to meet the Buddha. It is probably Upatissa who is kneeling in front of the Buddha, and Kolita and their followers are represented by the characters behind.
After hearing the Buddha teach in more depth, Sāriputta, Moggallāna and their followers all ordained. The followers became Arahats after only a little teaching. But Moggallāna took a week before he became an Arahat, and Sāriputta took two weeks. This is because their aspiration was not just for being Arahats, but for being Chief Disciples, which required more understanding and ability. It also had taken a lot longer time in Saṁsāra to fulfil their perfections. Two of the three sitting on the floor must be Sāriputta and Moggallāna, but who the other is I am not sure.
In the spring, the Buddha’s father King Suddhodana sent messengers to the Buddha asking him to come to Kapilavatthu and teach there. But before they could ask they all became Arahats, and forgot to make the request. Eventually the king sent his minister Kāḷudāyī, and he succeeded in making the invitation, and the Buddha and the monks returned to his native city. We see the Buddha leading five monks, representing the Saṅgha, all with almsbowls in hand, entering the city. The toraṇa shows the city’s limits.
After arriving in Kapilavatthu the king assumed the Buddha would come to the palace for his almsfood, and therefore didn’t make a specific invitation. However, the Buddha, reflecting on what previous Buddhas had done, went out on almsround. The king was alarmed as no one of the noble class begged for food, and he tried to stop the Buddha. But the Buddha explained his true lineage was with the Buddhas, not the nobles. The king holds the Buddha by the wrist, while five monks look on. Behind the king are his attendants.
While he was on almsround, all the people who lived in two- or three-storied houses came out onto the balconies to watch him pass by. Yasodharā brought her son Rāhula, who was now seven years old, to the balcony as well, and they both looked on as the Buddha in all his glory passed from door to door. Yasodharā at that time spoke in praise of the Buddha to Rāhula, chanting the ten verses on the Lion of a Man (Narasīhagāthā). We see it is mainly women in the closed upper balconies, while the Buddha leads five monks on almsround.
After a display of the Double Miracle, the other Sakyan princes and princesses all came to pay respects to the Buddha, but his former wife Yasodharā did not. She wanted the Buddha to come to her, if he felt her worthy of a visit. The Buddha went to her quarters and she then paid respects, crying over his feet, which he allowed. King Suddhodana explained how Yasodharā had emulated his renunciation while he was away. In the relief we see the Buddha holding his almsbowl, and behind Yasodharā are Rāhula and some dancing girls. Three monks are with the Buddha on this occasion.
Two scenes. 1) After giving a discourse in the palace, the Buddha handed his bowl to his half-brother Nanda, who had no choice but to follow him to the monastery. It was, in fact, the day he was due to be crowned a prince and get married. The scene shows his potential wife, Princess Janapadakalyāṇī, at his feet. 2) At the monastery the Buddha asked Nanda if he would like to go forth, and Nanda felt he could not refuse his brother, and so he agreed. This was the third day after the Buddha had reached Kapilavatthu.
Two scenes. 1) Yasodharā encouraged their son Rāhula to go to the Buddha and to seek his inheritance, meaning the four golden pots that had disappeared when the Bodhisatta renounced; 2) the Buddha, however, interpreted the request differently, and led him to the Nigrodha monastery where he asked Ven. Sāriputta to give Rāhula ordination, which he did, so that he could inherit the Dhamma wealth, rather than material wealth, which does not last. Rāhula would later become an Arahat himself.
King Suddhodana urged the Sakyan families to each give a prince for ordination, so they could wait upon the Buddha, and following the request 1,000 princes went forth. Six important families had not followed suit, however, and were reprimanded by the others. Then Bhaddiya, Anuruddha, Ānanda, Bhagu, Kimila, and Devadatta agreed to go forth. They took Upāli, their barber, along with them to cut their hair. He was also ordained that day, ahead of the princes, but the relief for some reason does not seem to show him.
Anāthapindika was a rich merchant who first met the Buddha in Rājagaha in Magadha while on a business trip. He invited the Buddha to Sāvatthī, and bought a large piece of land from Prince Jeta by laying gold pieces over the whole area. The monastery became famous as the Jetavana. Here he is seen: 1) Buying the land on the left by laying gold pieces over the whole area. Notice the carts full of gold being drawn by oxen in the background; and 2) dedicating it to the Saṅgha on the right by pouring the Waters of Donation over the hands of the receiving monk.
Once he had become established in Sāvatthī, King Pasenadi of Kosala and his queen, Mallikā, became firm supporters of the Buddha, and the Buddha spent the majority of his Rains Retreats in their capital Sāvatthī, where Anāthapiṇḍaka had built the Jetavana, and Visākhā had built the Pubbārāma, or eastern monastery. Here we see the king and the queen kneeling at the feet of the Buddha while he teaches Dhamma. Behind the Buddha four monks are seen to be listening attentively as well. As we can see from the trees and the huts, this takes place in one of the monasteries.
Five years after the Buddha’s Awakening, his father, King Suddhodana, fell sick, and was unlikely to recover. The Buddha, hearing of this, came to visit and encourage him, and there on his death-bed, after listening to the Buddha’s further teaching, he became one of only a few a lay-Arahats, and shortly thereafter passed away without ordaining. Here we see Queen Mahā Pajāpatī holding the king in her arms as he listens to the Buddha’s teachings for one last time. Monks stand behind, but the attendant under bed has fallen asleep!
THE BUDDHA AND WOMEN
The Buddha’s relationships with various women in his life, from accepting ordination for women, women teachers, great supporters, disciples and those who tried to defame him.
After King Suddhodana had passed away, Queen Mahā Pajāpatī wanted to ordain. At first the Buddha did not allow it, but the queen, along with 500 other ladies walked from Kapilavatthu to Vesālī, and again sought permission. After the intercession of Ven. Ānanda on their behalf, he permitted it, as long as they followed eight important rules. In the relief Mahā Pajāpatī kneels before the Buddha, while under the tree stands Ven. Ānanda, ready to urge their cause. Other ladies who had come with her are represented by the four who stand behind her. See The Discourse Concerning Gotamī (AN 8.51)
After killing the robber husband who planned to kill her, Kuṇḍalakesā went forth amongst female ascetics of the Nigaṇṭha (Jaina) sect, learned their doctrines, toured all over Jambudvīpa (India), and setting up a rose-apple branch at the gate, thereby challenged all-comers to debate with her. When Ven. Sāriputta saw the rose-apple one day he decided to challenge her, defeated her in debate, and directed her to the Buddha. Very quickly she became an Arahat after hearing just one four-line verse. In the relief on the left Kuṇḍalakesā is setting up the branch, and on the right is requesting ordination. Who the second female is in this scene is not clear. See The Stories about the Foremost Elder Nuns (AN-a 1.5.9)
Migāra, who was Visākhā’s father-in-law, was a follower of the naked ascetics, and often entertained them in his home, something which Visākhā boycotted. Visākhā convinced Migāra to meet with the Buddha, and he was converted and attained Stream-Entry. After that, Visākhā also became known as Migāramātā, Migāra’s mother (in the Dharma). Buddha is sat on a lion throne (sīhāsana) and teaching; on the right we see Visākhā, and on the left is Migāra, both are worshipping the Buddha. Around monks and lay people also worship. See The Story about Visākhā (Dhp-a 4.8).
The rich lady Visākhā was another of the Buddha’s great disciples. She had attained Stream-Entry at the age of seven. Later, she donated the Eastern Monastery, or Pubbārāma, to the Buddha and the Saṅgha. Both monasteries were in Sāvatthī, and he alternated between spending his Rains Retreat there and the Jetavana for 24 years. The Buddha also granted her eight boons connected with her desire to give generously to the Saṅgha. She is upheld as a model laywoman (upāsikā) in the Sāsana, and she always lived virtuously and generously. The donation of the Pubbārāma, which is shown in the background, is the scene here. See The Story about Visākhā (Dhp-a 4.8).
Visākhā was a great supporter of the Buddha and the Saṅgha, and after giving the Pubbārāma monastery she gave requisites to them for the four months of the Rainy season. She topped this off by giving robes to the Saṅgha, the cheapest of which was worth 1,000 coins. In all she spent 270 million on the donation. In the relief Visākhā stands in the middle, holding robes, and it looks like Migāra is offering something in his cupped hands to a monk; probably the person on the left with the Waters of Donation is Puṇṇavaddhana, Visākhā’s husband. Many monks stand around witnessing the largesse. See The Story about Visākhā (Dhp-a 4.8).
Anāthapiṇḍika had a daughter-in-law, Sujātā, who was haughty and proud. One day, when the Buddha was there, she was scolding the servants in the house. The Buddha explained to her the seven types of wives: the destructive, the thief, the domineering, the motherly, the sisterly, the friendly and the servant. Sujātā was won over by his teaching and became a Stream-Enterer and a good wife. Kneeling on the left of the relief is Sujātā, the other ladies would be her attendants. Four monks stand behind the Buddha worshipping. See The Birth Story about Sujātā (Ja 269).
When she was young Paṭācārā ran away with her family’s servant, but after having two children she lost first her husband, then her children, and shortly after she learned that her parents had died the same night in a fire. Losing her mind she flung off her clothes and roamed around like someone who had lost her mind. Eventually she came to the Buddha who brought her to her senses and taught her the truth about existence in Saṁsāra. After a while she became an Arahat, and the leading female disciple with knowledge of the Discipline. See The Stories about the Foremost Elder Nuns (AN-a 1.5.4).
Kisā Gotamī had a son, and she was held in great esteem in her new family home. But when her son died at a young age, she found herself despised. She was walking round with her dead son in her arms, looking for a cure, and was directed to the Buddha, who asked her to bring mustard seeds from a house where no one had died. She was unable to, of course, and came to realise the realities of life in Saṁsāra. Later she also became an Arahat. Two scenes: on the right, Kisā asks the Buddha for medicine; on the left, she is asking for mustard seed from a house without death, which no one could give. See The Stories about the Foremost Elder Nuns (AN-a 1.5.12).
The slave-girl Puṇṇā belonged to Anāthapiṇḍika’s household. She had become a Stream-Enterer on hearing the Buddha teach the Discourse on the Lion’s Roar (Sīhanādasutta). One day, when she went to the river to collect water, she met a Brahmin who believed in purification through bathing. She persuaded him this did not work, and taught him the right path. When Anāthapiṇḍika heard this he freed her, and she ordained and soon became an Arahat. A simple scene, the Brahmin is in the river, and Puṇṇā, pot on her hip, is teaching him. See The Commentary to Elder Nun Puṇṇā’s Verses (Thīg 236–251).
Subhā was a bhikkhunī who, seeing the trouble in sense-pleasures, went forth under Mahā Pajāpatī. One day a libertine stopped her and tried to seduce her. Seeing that he was particularly enamoured of her eyes, she plucked one out and gave it to him. He came to his senses, and afterwards when she went into the presence of the Buddha her eye recovered. The Buddha then taught her meditation and she became an Arahat. The scene just shows Subhā trying to get away from the libertine. The plucking out of her eye and its restoration are not shown. See The Commentary to Elder Nun Subhā’s Verses (Thīg 366–399).
One time, when the Buddha was in Āḷavī he taught the meditation on death (maraṇassati) to those who had gathered for almsgiving. One young weaver’s girl took up the practice ardently. Three years later, the Buddha knew she was ripe for Stream-Entry, so he went again to Āḷavī and asked her four riddling questions, which she understood and answered correctly and attained the First Path. The scene is evidently set just outside a village, the weaver’s daughter stands on the left of the Buddha. Three monks are on the right, and three lay people are on the left. See The Story about the Weaver’s Daughter (Dhp-a 13.7).
Khujjuttarā was a hunchbacked servant of the great queen Sāmāvatī. Every day she would take money from the queen, pocket some for herself, and use the rest to buy flowers. One day, when she went to the florist, she listened to a discourse by the Buddha and attained Stream-Entry. When she got back to the queen that day she confessed her previous wrong-doing and taught her Dhamma. From then on the queen asked her to report his teachings back to her and her court. These teachings were later collected as the Itivuttaka (Thus Saids). On the right Khujjuttarā is listening to Dhamma, on the left she is speaking with the queen. See The Conversion of Sāmāvatī by Khujjuttarā (Dhp-a 2.1).
King Bimbisāra’s chief consort, Queen Khemā, was very vain and proud of her good looks, and fearing that the Buddha would speak badly of her she didn’t visit him. The king, however, had his court poets sing about the glories of Veḷuvana, where the Buddha was staying, and she was enticed to go. When she approached the Buddha he created the image of a beautiful woman, and then showed her ageing, growing sick and dying. Seeing this she became an Arhat. Later she became one of the two chief female disciples of the Buddha. On the right we see a time-lapse sequence. The created woman is fanning, failing and lying dead at the feet of the Buddha as Khemā looks on. See The Stories about the Foremost Elder Nuns (AN-a 1.5.2).
When Visākha became a Non-returner (Anāgāmī) he no longer had interest in the normal relations of household life. His wife Dhammadinnā then asked for his permission to go forth into the monastic life, which he readily granted. After Dhammadinnā had gone forth, she quickly overtook her erstwhile husband and became an Arahat. Visākha then came to her and asked several questions about the Dhamma which his former wife convincingly answered and the Buddha confirmed. In the relief, Dhammadinnā, now a Bhikkhunī is sat on the Dhamma-seat, and her husband worships in front of her. See The Stories about the Foremost Elder Nuns (AN-a 1.5.5).
The Brahmin Māgandiya had a very beautiful daughter, who had many suitors, but the Brahmin didn’t consider any of them worthy of her. One day the Buddha went into their presence and Māgandiya offered his daughter to him. The Buddha declined the offer, pointing out the impurities of the body. Māgandiya and his wife, after listening to the discourse, became Non-returners. The footprints on the path show how Māgandiya traced the Buddha to a foot of a tree. The Brahmin holds his daughter, and the Buddha teaches them. See The Story about Māgandiya (Dhp-a 14.1).
Ciñcā was a follower of the sectarians. When their gains started dropping as the Saṅgha’s were rising, they persuaded her to accuse the Buddha of wrong-doing. She wrapped a block of wood to her stomach to make it look like she was pregnant then publicly accused the Buddha. Sakka seeing this, made the blocks fall down. They cut her toes off and she was exposed as a liar. In the relief we see only Ciñcā making her accusation in the midst of the assembly, Sakka’s intervention, and the wood-block falling are omitted. See The Story about the Young Brahmin Girl Ciñcā (Dhp-a 13.9).
Sundarī was a female wanderer. The other wanderers persuaded her to make it look like she was visiting the Buddha at night for some time. Then they killed her and threw her body in a ditch and accused the Buddha and the Saṅgha of wrong-doing. There was a hue and cry throughout the city when her body was discovered. But the Buddha remained calm. After a week the truth came out, and the wanderers were further disgraced. In the relief the people carry Sundarī’s body away, whilst one man makes accusations. See The Discourse about Sundarī (Ud 4.8).
Prakṛtī was a low-caste girl who fell in love with Ven. Ānanda. She persuaded her mother to cast a spell over Ānanda and get him into her power, which she did. Just as Ānanda was about to lose his vows he came to his senses and called on the Buddha, who reminded him of the repulsive qualities of the body. Ānanda was saved from fault, and later Prakṛtī became a nun. This story is found in the Sanskrit text Śārdūlakarṇa Avadāna in the Avadānaśataka. Two scenes: on the left, Ānanda is waiting from alms from Prakṛtī; on the right Prakṛtī chases after him. See The Exemplary Tale of Śārdūlakarṇa (Divy 33).
VARIOUS TEACHINGS
Most of the teachings found in this section come from the Pāḷi Tipiṭaka, which contains some of the earliest teachings of the Buddha. I have identified the discourse or section where they are found in the caption.
Bāvari was a highly esteemed ascetic who lived on the banks of the Godāvarī river with his many disciples. When he heard a Buddha had arisen in the world he sent 16 of his disciples and their entourages to meet with him. Each of them asked the Buddha a question, and getting satisfactory answers that taught them the way to the beyond, they became Arahats and were convinced of his Awakening. The story, questions and answers are recorded in The Way to the Beyond (Snp 5). All sixteen disciples are shown in the relief, with the Buddha teaching them.
Sunīta was of a very low caste at the time of the Buddha. One day he was sweeping the roads, when the Buddha saw that he had the requisite conditions to make good progress. The Buddha went up to him and asked if he would like to ordain, to which Sunīta agreed. Then the Buddha taught him meditation, and he soon became an Arahat. His story is told in the Commentary to the Elder’s Verses (Theragāthaṭṭhakathā). We see the Buddha and various monks out of almsround, and Sunīta listening to his teaching. See The Commentary to Elder Sunīta’s Verses (Thag 620–631).
Two scenes. Sopāka was the son of a cemetery attendant, but soon after his birth his father died, and he was brought up by his uncle. 1) After he had quarreled with his cousin his uncle took him to a charnel ground and tied him to a corpse intending that jackals would kill and eat him. The Buddha send his own radiant image to him and Sopāka broke free of his bonds. 2) He later successfully answered 10 questions (known as the Sāmaṇerapañhā) and was ordained, becoming an Arahat at the age of ten. See The Commentary to Elder Sopāka’s Verses (Thag 33).
Kasi Bhāradvāja was a farmer in Magadha who worked hard on the land, and enjoyed its produce. One day, while the farmer was sowing, the Buddha approached him looking for alms. Bhāradvāja complained that the Buddha didn’t work for his living, as he did, and didn’t want to give him anything. The Buddha convinced him that he also worked, but at spiritual, not material, development. The farmer was pleased and went for refuge, took ordination and soon became an Arahat. The story is told in The Discourse about Kasībhāradvāja (Snp. 1.4).
The Brahmin Kūṭadanta asked the Buddha for advice on how to hold a great sacrifice. The Buddha taught him that in the past sacrifices were not made with animals, and that no living being should be hurt. The Brahmin became a Stream-Enterer and heeded the Buddha’s words. Three scenes: on the left Kūṭadanta prepares to kill an ox; centre-top, he listens to the Buddha’s teachings on non-violence (ahiṁsa); centre-bottom, he lets the animals go. The story is told in The Discourse about Kūṭadanta (DN.5).
Aṅgulimāla was a loyal student whose teacher asked from him 1,000 fingers from the right hand of his victims. He wore a garland of the fingers he had cut off, hence his name meaning Finger-Garland. The Buddha prevented him taking any more fingers and converted him by his miraculous power. Later he became an Arahat. His story is told in The Discourse about Aṅgulimāla (MN 86) and its commentary, as well as in The Commentary to Aṅgulimāla’s Verses (Thag 866–891). Two scenes: Aṅgulimāla is running towards the Buddha with sword raised, and then is seen worshipping at the Buddha’s feet.
One time the Buddha was walking around the monks’ dwellings with Ven. Ānanda. Inside one dwelling was a monk sick with dysentery. The Buddha asked Ānanda to bring water, and the two of them proceeded to clean the monk, and lay him on a clean bed. On this occasion the Buddha laid down a rule that monks must take care of each other when sick, and not neglect this duty. The story is told in The Account of the One Who Was Sick (Vin Mv 8.23). We see the Buddha and Ānanda holding water behind him, while the monks look on. One covers his nose with his hand.
The most famous physician of the Buddha’s time was Jīvaka, who had been born of a courtesan of Rājagaha, and discarded after birth. Jīvaka was the king’s physician, and he also became the Saṅgha’s. He liked to listen to Dhamma, but finding the Veḷuvana too far away, he offered the Buddha and Saṅgha a meal and afterwards donated his Mango-Grove (Ambavana) to them. For the story see The Commentary to the Discourse on the Fruits of Recluseship (DN-a 2). In the relief Jīvaka is seen offering mangoes from his grove, but not offering the grove itself.
Āḷavaka was a Yakkha who had made a pact with the king of Āḷavaka to supply him with humans to eat. The Buddha came to know of this and visited the Yakkha’s home while he was out. When he heard the Buddha was in his home and on his throne he got very angry and returned. Then he tried to dislodge the Buddha but without success. Eventually he asked a number of questions of the Buddha who answered them and converted him. For the story see The Discourse Concerning Āḷavaka (Snp 1.10) and its commentary. Here we see the Buddha sat on the Yakkha’s throne, and the Yakkha listening to him, with his two wives in the background.
After a long life maintaining his precepts, and being generous at every turn, Anāthapiṇḍaka grew old and sick. As he lay on his deathbed he asked for Vens. Sāriputta and Ānanda to come and teach him Dhamma one more time. They did so, teaching him about the importance of not grasping, and after he had offered a last meal to them, he passed away and was reborn in Tusita heaven. For the story see The Discourse Giving Advice to Anāthapiṇḍaka (MN 143). In the relief the two monastics sit at either end of his bed, and the Devas wait to escort him to heaven.
The Sakyans and the Koliyans were kin who lived on opposite sides on the river Rohiṇī whose waters they shared for irrigation purposes. One time during a drought a dispute arose between them over usage of the water. They were about to come to blows when the Buddha intervened and asked: “What is more precious, the blood of nobles or the water of the river?” They came to their senses and desisted from their argument. See The Commentary to Kunālajātaka (Ja 536). Here we see the Buddha standing on the bank of the river, and the two sides are listening to his teaching.
King Pukkusāti was king of Gandhāra. One day he came to know of the existence of the Buddha, and decided to renounce. The Buddha knowing his conditions were ripe, caught up with him when he was staying in a potter’s home. The Buddha entered and taught him there, and he became a Non-returner, shortly before being gored by a bull and dying. See The Analysis of the Elements (MN 140) and its commentary. Three scenes: on the top left Pukkusāti is asking the Buddha for ordination; top right, he receives it; bottom he is gored by an bull. Note in the Pāḷi story he never got as far as ordination.
After the Chief Disciples had been elected by the Buddha, Aññā Koṇḍañña, who had been the first to attain, decided to retire into the Chaddanta elephant forest. The elephants looked after him for 12 years. He then went back to the Buddha and obtained permission to pass away, which the Buddha allowed. He returned to the forest and entered Parinibbāna. 8,000 elephants took care of his funeral. See The Life Story of Ven. Koṇḍañña (SN 8.9). In the relief the Buddha and one other monk are evidently in the Chaddanta forest and Koṇḍañña lies dying in front of him. This is not how it is told in the Pāḷi texts.
DEVADATTA & TREACHERY
Devadatta was the Buddha’s cousin, and his brother-in-law. He went forth as one of the seven princes who renounced when the Buddha returned to his home town. Later though his ambitions got the better of him and he tried to kill the Buddha and take over the Saṅgha. Other treacherous people are also dealt with in the section. For stories concerning Devadatta in this section, see The Story about Devadatta (Dhp-a 1.12).
King Bimbisāra was one of the Buddha’s main supporters. He had a son who was called Ajātasattu (meaning: an enemy from birth). When he grew up, at the instigation of Devadatta, he imprisoned his father and made himself king. He then starved the king to death, despite the queen’s attempts to save him. For the story see The Commentary to the Discourse on the Fruits of Recluseship (DN-a 2). Three scenes: left, the king is taken to prison, while his son sits on the throne; top right, his wife feeds him; bottom right, he lies dead in prison.
Devadatta was one of the six Sakyan princes who ordained. He was a cousin of the Buddha and brother of Yasodharā. He grew jealous of the Buddha and wanted to take over the Saṅgha. He hired assassins to kill the Buddha, but when they approached their intended victim, they were unable to complete their mission, and converted instead. The relief is very simple, the assassins have put aside their swords and are worshipping the Buddha, who gives them his blessing.
Having failed to kill the Buddha with assassins, Devadatta decided to try to do the deed himself. One day, when the Buddha was walking on Gijjhakūṭa, Devadatta, who was on a cliff above him, rolled a large rock down the hill. The rock broke into smithereens, one of which hit and cut the Buddha’s foot. A Buddha cannot be killed by others, and he lived on and continued his teaching. Again a simple scene, Devadatta stands ready to roll a large rock as the Buddha passes by in a valley below.
Devadatta tried many times to kill the Buddha, so he could take his place. One time he had a large elephant, Nāḷāgiri, who was in musk, set loose on the Buddha’s path. The people all ran away, but Ven. Ānanda tried to put himself between the elephant and the Buddha. The Buddha, though, brought the elephant to a halt with the powers of his loving-kindness. Here we see Nāḷāgiri at the feet of the Buddha, as the people, still scared, run away, and people look on from safety.
Devadatta next decided to cause a schism and take over the Saṅgha under his own leadership. He propagated five ascetic rules, and some who were foolish decided to follow him. The Buddha send Vens. Sāriputta and Moggallāna to bring his disciples back, which they did, leaving Devadatta without support. On the right Devadatta asks the Buddha about the rules he proposes, on the left he encourages the Saṅgha to follow himself. The scene with Vens. Sāriputta and Moggallāna persuading the monks to return is omitted.
After the death of his father Ajātasattu felt much remorse and wondered about his future. Being persuaded by Jīvaka he went to the Buddha and confessed what he had done. It was on this occasion that the Buddha taught one of his most important discourses. After the Buddha’s passing Ajātasattu himself was killed by his own son Udāyī. For the story see The Commentary to the Discourse on the Fruits of Recluseship (DN-a 2)). In the relief we see the king has dismounted, laid aside his sword, and is listening to the Buddha. Attendants stand behind him.
Both Vens. Sāriputta and Moggallāna passed away a few months before the Buddha. In Ven. Sāriputta’s case he had returned to his mother in the place of his birth. He finally managed to convert his mother to the Buddha’s teaching, and then lying in the bed he had been born in, he passed away peacefully. See The Life Story of Ven. Sāriputta. On the left we see the passing of Sāriputta; on the right the Buddha is teaching a lady, maybe it intends Sāriputta’s mother, but she was taught by her son before his passing.
Viḍūḍabha was the son of King Pasenadi of Kosala. The king had asked the Sakyans to give one of their daughters to him, hoping this would make him kin to the Buddha. The Sakyans deceptively gave him a daughter born of a slave-woman, who later gave birth to Viḍūḍabha. When he had ascended to the throne, and had found out about his birth, he was very angry and decided to destroy the Sakyans. Twice the Buddha sat under a tree and was able to prevent the king from carrying out his plan. For the story here and in the next two reliefs see The Story about Viḍūḍabha (Dhp-a 4.3). We see the king on an elephant leading his army to war, and the Buddha sitting under a tree.
The third time this happened though the Buddha looked into the past deeds of the Sakyans and understood their deeds in the past were leading to their destruction in the present. King Viḍūḍabha then fell upon the Sakyans and destroyed nearly every one of them in a great slaughter. In the relief the Kosalans are seen killing the Sakyans, as others, on the left, are seen fleeing. One is holding her baby as she makes her escape. The elephant has impaled another on its tusks.
After destroying the Sakyans, and while on the way back to Kosala, Viḍūḍabha and his army decided to rest on the banks of the Aciravatī river. During the night there was a sudden flood, and those who were guilty of committing genocide against the Sakyans, including the king, were swept away by the waters. We see the king and his men in great distress as they are swept away during the flood. We don't see any survivors, but it is perhaps indicated by the tents and horses on the bank of the river.
LAST DAYS OF THE BUDDHA
The stories for this set of reliefs can be found in The Discourse about the Great Emancipation (DN 16), which recounts the last year of the Buddha’s life, up and till his final emancipation (Parinibbāna).
Ambapālī was a courtesan working in Vesālī who was very rich and was a supporter of the Buddha. On his last tour the Buddha agreed to a meal offered by Ambapālī. Even though the Licchavī princes wanted to buy the privilege of giving the meal from her, she refused, and served the Buddha and the Saṅgha herself. In the relief we see Ambapālī offerings fruits, and the Buddha eating one. The monks’ bowls are also full of fruits. Strangely, there are no attendants pictured helping Ambapālī.
After the meal she offered her mango-grove to the Buddha and the Saṅgha. This was the last monastery offered to the Buddha during his teaching career. Later, seeing impermanence in her own body she left the world and became an Arahat. Her sophisticated verses are recorded in the Verses of the Elder Nuns (Pāḷi: Therīgāthā). Ambapālī stands in front of her attendants, and pours the Waters of Donation over the hands of one of the monastics, as the Buddha and others look on.
After 45 years of teaching, the Buddha’s body, at the age of 80, was old, sick and worn out. Although he suppressed his illness for some months, eventually he relinquishVen. Ānanda that although he had the power and could live on, he would now pass away just three months hence. Later Ven. Ānanda would be blamed for not requesting him to live on. I think we must take it that Ven. Ānanda is the monk holding the lotus in front of the Buddha.
After the Rains Retreat had been completed the Buddha gradually left Vesālī, and started walking north. He eventually came to Pāvā and stayed there in Cunda’s Mango Grove. When Cunda knew the Buddha had arrived he went and invited the Buddha and the Saṅgha for the next day’s meal, to which they agreed. The Buddha took his meal, but shortly thereafter fell sick again, although this was not because of the meal, but because he had given up the life-process three months earlier. In the relief Cunda kneels in front of the Buddha and offers him a meal.
After leaving Pāvā the Buddha and the Saṅgha continued on the way. The Buddha was very tired and had to rest on twenty-five separate occasions. On one of these he asked his attendant Ven. Ānanda to bring water as he was thirsty. Ānanda was hesitant as the water in the brook was stirred up by the passing of a caravan. Still, the Buddha insisted, and as Ānanda drew the water it became clear and clean. In the relief Ānanda holds the bowl of water he has brought, and the Buddha looks truly exhausted. Other monastics look on concerned at the deteriorating condition of the Buddha.
Eventually the Buddha and the Saṅgha reached the Sāla Grove outside of Kusinārā, a town of the Mallas. Ven. Ānanda went into the town and announced the Buddha’s presence, and urged them to come and pay their last respects. Ānanda organised them into groups so they would all be able to see the Buddha before his passing. They spent the whole of the first watch of the night passing by the Buddha as he lay dying. As we see in the relief, both young and old, came to pay their respects. Ven. Ānanda is seen urging them to come.
After seven days spent marking the passing of the Buddha the Mallas prepared to perform the cremation. When they tried to light the fire though, it wouldn’t burn. They asked Ven. Anuruddha what was the cause, and he answered they should wait for Ven. Mahā Kassapa to arrive and pay his last respects. Ven. Mahā Kassapa was not with the group around the Buddha at that time, but was on walking tour when he noticed a sign, and made haste to his master’s final resting place. When he arrived he paid his respects at the Buddha’s feet, and afterwards it was possible to light the fire and cremate him.
The cremation took place after the festivities had closed, one week after the passing of the Buddha, at the shrine of the Mallas called Makuṭabandhana. Monastics and lay people from the nearby town all attended the cremation. All of the skin, flesh, sinews and fluids were consumed. Only certain fragments of the Buddha’s bones and teeth were amongst the remains. On the right of the relief and around the cremation spot we see the elders of the Mallas and some of the monks. One pays his last respects; another sits grieving on the ground.
There was a great dispute amongst the people who knew the Buddha over who should get these remains. Eventually it was settled by a Brahmin, Doṇa, who divided them into eight portions amongst the claimants. Each agreed to built a stūpa over their section of the remains. The relics at Rāmgāma were protected by the Nāgas. The grandest procession was that of Ajātasattu, who according to the commentary took seven years, seven months and seven days to bring them back to Rājagaha, which was only 25 leagues away.
SĀSANA
THE FIRST TWO COUNCILS
The story here is taken from the last two books of the Khandhaka section of the Vinaya (Vin Cv 11 & 12), which tells the stories of the first two councils: The Chapter on the Group of Five Hundred, and The Chapter on the Group of Seven Hundred.
In order to preserve the Buddha’s teachings, and to save it from any corruption, Mahā Kassapa called for a Council, in which 500 Arahats would participate and agree on the correct form of the teachings. The Arahats assembled at Rājagaha under the patronage of King Ajātasattu at the Sattapaṇṇi Cave. Ven. Ānanda was last to join the group, as he had not up to that point become an Arahat. As soon as he had that attainment he was allowed to join in. In the relief Mahā Kassapa sits on the high chair and asks the questions. Vens. Ānanda and Upāli sit on either side of him, while the monks look on.
When they began the chanting of the texts, they started with the Vinaya or Discipline, as this is the bedrock on which the Saṅgha is established. Mahā Kassapa asked the questions, and Ven. Upāli, who was the leading expert on the Discipline answered him, and it was confirmed by the Saṅgha chanting in unison. The relief is not as clear as the previous one, as we do not see Ven. Mahā Kassapa, but only Ven. Upāli reciting in front of the Saṅgha. Part of the Saṅgha standing is also incorrect, as they would have been sitting.
Then Ven. Ānanda, who had been admitted to the conclave at the last moment after he had become an Arahat, answered questions with regard to the Discourses. Ānanda had had privileged access to the teachings, being at the Buddha’s side for the past 25 years of his life, and he had a powerful memory also. He had requested and received a boon that any discourses he had missed the Buddha would teach to him later. The same faults are seen in this relief as in the previous one.
One hundred years after the passing of the Buddha the Vajjian monks of Vesālī declared 10 points that were in conflict with the orthodox understanding of the Vinaya. 700 Arhats got together under Ven. Revata and confirmed what was the correct teaching for a second time. In the relief Ven. Revata, who presided over the council, sits in the centre confronting the Vajjians who are pictured on the right of the relief. The Vajjians appear to be contesting his pronouncements. The orthodox monks seated next to him are a picture of serenity.
THE CAREER OF KING ASOKA
The following is based mainly on the account given in the Sri Lankan chronicle Mahāvaṁsa, the Great Lineage, which tells how Sri Lanka was founded, became Buddhist and progressed during the centuries.
King Asoka had inherited a large kingdom from his father Bindusāra, but a part of eastern India remained unconquered. Asoka, who was known at the time as Caṇḍāsoka (Fierce Asoka), therefore moved against the kingdom of Kāliṅga and defeated it. But the victory was at a very high cost in human life, which weighed on the mind of the king. Later he became Buddhist and decided that henceforth he would not conquer by force, but by Dhamma, and he was henceforth known as Dhammāsoka (Righteous Asoka). We see the terrors of the battlefield well portrayed in the relief.
King Asoka was greatly distressed by the death and destruction caused by the Kāliṅga war, in which at least 100,000 died. In the relief we see the king walking through the battlefield, and on the floor the dead and dying. Mothers are seen holding their children. Some of the soldiers have been decapitated. Wheels of broken chariots lie around. Fires have been lit to cremate the bodies. The whole scene adds up to a picture of carnage and destruction.
King Asoka, having seen the death and destruction on the fields of Kāliṅga, resolved afterwards to rule by Dhamma. He therefore had edicts erected throughout his empire proclaiming the Dhamma, and what he expects from his citizens by way of righteous living. In the relief probably the fence on the left means that the people are outside his actual territories, but he still reaches them with Dhamma, by spreading his edicts, and later sending missionaries. One of his rock edicts, which were written in various scripts, is seen behind the king.
Because of the huge success of the Buddha’s teaching during King Asoka’s rule many unscrupulous people put on robes and joined the Saṅgha. The king, trusting in Ven. Moggaliputtatissa, called monks into his presence and had them explain the Dhamma according to their own understanding. Those in line with the Vibhajjavāda he approved, those who taught something else he expelled. When the Saṅgha had been thus purified he called a Third Council to confirm the teachings once more which was attended by 1,000 monks.
After the successful completion of the Third Council, King Asoka decided to send trustworthy missionaries to the farther reaches of his empire and beyond. He therefore consulted with Ven. Moggaliputtatissa about who to send. They taught the Dhamma and also established the twofold Saṅgha everywhere they went, including in Sri Lanka. In the relief the king is seen standing with a prospective missionary, and Ven. Moggaliputtatissa giving his approval for the mission.
The mission that went to Sri Lanka did not have any bhikkhunīs with it at first, so when Queen Anulā requested ordination, Mahinda Thera sent a request back to the king that his sister, the Arahat nun, Ven. Saṅghamittā, come to the country. King Asoka eventually agreed, and gave her a sapling of the sacred Bodhi tree to take with her. Here we see the king passing the sapling to Ven. Saṅghamittā. One nun, out of the twelve who accompanied her on the mission, stands on the right.
When they reached Sri Lanka, King Devānampiyatissa came to the shoreside and went into the waters in order to receive the sapling of the Bodhi Tree, which Arahat Saṅghamittā and 12 other nuns had brought from India. He then made the tree sovereign over the country for seven days, before planting it in his capital Anurādhapura, where it still stands till this day. The relief shows two scenes, on the left the king stands with Ven. Mahinda, on the right he recieves the Bodhi tree from Ven. Saṅghamittā.
In the first century BCE there was a great famine in Sri Lanka and the Saṅgha saw the possibility of the teachings, which were all held only in memory, being lost. They decided therefore to gather at the Aluvihāra cave temple near Matale, and write them all down to ensure their preservation (See The Chronicle of the Island). In the relief we see the monks diligently writing the manuscripts on palm leaves on the left, and centre-right we see another monk checking them.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SĀSANA
Following King Asoka’s missions the Buddha’s teaching began to spread along the various Silk Roads, and reached far away countries like China. Meanwhile in India the Sāsana developed at a pace, and won over kings and commoners alike.
Following a dream that the Chinese Emperor Ming had, he send emissaries to India to bring the Buddha’s teachings to China. He then built the White Horse Temple for them, not far from Luoyang. This was in CE 68. It was the first Buddhist Temple in China, and, though it has undergone many changes, it still stands today. Anachronistically, we see the Buddha himself with four monastics representing the Saṅgha in front of the temple.
One of the most influential translators was Kumārajīva, who was a monk and missionary from Central Asia. He translated a lot of the texts and commentaries of the Mahāyāna tradition into Chinese, including the Diamond sūtra, the Sukhāvatī sūtra, the Lotus sūtra, and many more including texts from the Madhyamaka school, laying the foundation for the Three Treatises tradition. In the relief we see Kumārajīva sitting and explaining the text to the monks in front of him. Two women assist him.
King Kaniṣka was the Central-Asian head of the Kuṣāṇa dynasty which spread over the north of India, and had capitals at Puruṣapura (Peshawar) in Gandhāra, and Mathurā in the Indo-Gangetic plain. He convened the Fourth Buddhist Council known to northern sources in Kashmir which was presided over by Vasumitra and Aśvaghoṣa. In the relief there are two scenes: on the left, King Kaniṣka sits on his throne, with a stūpa hehind him. On the right Aśvaghoṣa and Vasumitra preside over the council.
Aśvaghoṣa wrote the Buddhacarita, or Life of the Buddha, one of the masterpieces of Sanskrit literature, covering the Buddha’s whole life from birth to passing (although only the first half survives in Sanskrit, the full text is found in Chinese). In this relief we see Aśvaghoṣa sat under a tree and writing his work, with two scenes from the work illustrated behind: the Awakening, and the settling of the dispute between the Koliyans and the Śākyans.
The young Bodhisattva Sudhana’s story is told in the Gaṇḍavyūha, one of the main texts of the Mahāyāna, which forms the last chapter of the Flower Garland Discourse (Avataṁsakasūtra). There the Buddha reveals the Dharmadhātu to his followers, including Mañjuśrī, who then travels south where his own devotees gather round him. He points out Sudhana to them and establishes him in Bodhicitta. Sudhana then sets out on his quest for Awakening in which he meets with 53 spiritual advisors. In the relief Mañjuśrī sits on his throne, on the right we see Sudhana.
One of the spiritual friends that Sudhana meets with is the householder Vidvān, who has only to look up, and food and other necessities stream down from the skies. The elaborate relief shows Vidvān sitting on a high seat, and next to the flower vase below is Sudhana, who has a halo behind his head, indicating he is a Bodhisattva. Vidvān has been for a long time inspiring others to become Bodhisattvas and do good deeds. The elaborate design of this panel is based on a relief found at Borobudur.
The Ikṣvāku kings would celebrate the beginning of the ploughing season, normally held in the month of Jyeṣṭha (June) in Andhra, by beginning the ploughing themselves. This would get the season off to an auspicious start. The Bodhisattva’s father, King Śuddhodana, also held a ploughing festival each year. In the relief the king is seen holding the plough, with his queen behind him, and what are probably farmers behind him. Monks also attend, giving their blessings for the prosperity of the land.
Women were the main sponsors of Buddhism during the Ikṣvāku period, while the kings supported Brahmanism. Sometimes they were queens, or connected to the court. One of the main sponsors was the Mahā Upāsikā Bodhisirī, who was a particularly generous supporter of the Sri Lankan lineages at Nāgārjunakoṇḍā, and in particular the Vibhajyavādins, who had done so much to propagate the Dharma. Here she is seen worshipping at the feet of one of the statues she has commissioned as monks and laywomen look on.
Bodhidharma was a great meditation master, reputedly the third son of a South Indian king, who had renounced the world. Later he travelled to China where he propagated his teachings, which led to the establishment of the Ch’an school in China, and the Zen school in Japan, and of the Shaolin kung fu school. He seems to have been active during the 5th century CE. The relief is based on a painting of Bodhidharma by Yoshitoshi on the right, with a contextual vihāra, and two monks added in.
Prince Danta was the son of the king of Ujjeni. When he visited Kāliṅga (now roughly the state of Odisha) he married Princess Hemamālā, who was the daughter of the king. When the Tooth Relic, which was being held in Kāliṅga, was in danger of being lost or destroyed, the royal couple disguised themselves and set sail for Sri Lanka, with the relic hidden in the princess’ hair. In the relief the couple carry their requisites, including waterpots, umbrellas and a trident, as they stand at the side of the ocean.
The couple sailed from Tamralipti, and after several miracles on the way, they made it to Sri Lanka, where King Siri Meghavarṇa received them, and built a special temple for the relic. Over the course of centuries the relic had many homes, as fortunes waxed and waned, but is now famously held in the Temple of the Tooth in Kandy. The relief shows the royal couple on the floor worshipping the relic, while King Siri Meghavarṇa either inspects or installs it, and monks and lay people look on.
In Sri Lanka Ven. Buddhaghosa had learned the Theravāda scriptures in Pāḷi and Sinhala, and proposed translating the Sinhala commentaries into Pāḷi. As a test, the monastics of the Mahāvihāra asked him to write a manual summarising the teaching. He wrote the Visuddhimagga to demonstrate his proficiency. The Devas twice took the finished manuscript away, so he wrote it a second and a third time. When the Devas returned the first two manuscripts they were all found to be in agreement. The relief is based on the painting by Solias Mendis, found in the Kelaniya Mahā Vihāra showing Buddhaghosa and the three manuscripts.
NĀLANDĀ TEACHERS
The Nālandā lineage was a long line of teachers who worked on all aspects of the Mahāyāna teaching, laying out its fundamentals, epistemology, logic and practice. The Tibetan tradition (Vajrayāna) is considered the living embodiment of this teaching.
According to tradition the Nāgas kept safe the advanced Prajñāpāramitā texts until the people were ready to receive the teachings. They then passed them to Ācārya Nāgārjuna who taught them to his disciples and established the Madhyamaka teachings on emptiness. Traditionally, Nāgārjuna taught at the monastery now named after him at Nāgārjunakoṇḍā. In the relief we see the Nāga-king with seven hoods and two of his queens, with a single hood, pass the texts to Ven. Nāgārjuna.
Ven. Nāgārjuna composed the Madhyamaka texts, including the Fundamental Verses of the Middle Way (Mūlamadhyamakakārikā) and the Seventy Verses on Emptiness (Śūnyatāsaptati), which became the foundation texts for this school, and inspired many commentaries, all of which were translated into many languages, and were widely used in far away places like China. He was probably active around the 3rd century of the Common Era. The relief is very simple, and shows Nāgārjuna sitting under a tree writing his works while monks look on.
When Ven. Āryadeva came from Sri Lanka, where he was born, to Andhra, he met the great teacher Ven. Nāgārjuna who saw potential in him. Nāgārjuna gave a bowl full of water to the wise disciple, signifying his own vast knowledge, and Āryadeva dropped a needle into it, signifying his ability to plummet the depths of the teaching. He went on to write the Four Hundred Verses (Catuḥśataka) and the Treatise in One Hundred Verses (Śataśāstra). We see Ven. Āryadeva holding the bowl Ven. Nāgārjuna has passed him.
Ven. Āryadeva was a leading disciple of Nāgārjuna, and is one of the most important writers for the East Asian traditions. He was invited to the famous Buddhist University at Nālandā to debate the non-Buddhist magician Mātṛceṭa. Ven. Āryadeva won the debate and Mātṛceṭa then converted. Some believe Mātṛceṭa, Āryasūra and Aśvaghoṣa are the same person, but this seems to result from a confusion, and they are best thought of as separate writers. In the relief Mātṛceṭa submits to the greater wisdom of Ven. Āryadeva as monastics look on.
Asaṅga and his half-brother Vasubandhu were instrumental in working out the Consciouness-Only (Vijñānavāda) school of thought. Asaṅga was possibly from Puruṣapura, and was originally part of the Śrāvaka school of the Mahīśāsaka, before converting to the Mahāyāna. They both were considered amongst the 17 masters of the Nālandā tradition. In the relief probably Asaṅga is pictured sitting, and Vasubandhu is leaning in towards him, while monastics listen to their discussion.
Ven. Dignāga, who was a celebrated Buddhist philosopher who laid the groundwork for Buddhist logic and epistemology. He seems to have been born in Tamil Nadu, and later took Vasubandhu as his teacher. Dignāga’s system was clear and precise. He laid it out in his masterpiece the Compendium of Epistemology (Pramāṇasamuccaya), and other works like the Examination of the Object of Cognition (Alambanaparīkṣā). Here he is pictured sitting on the Dharma throne and surrounded by students who listen attentively.
Śāntideva was possibly a South Indian, who studied at Nālandā in the 8th century, which is where he also composed his works, including the classic Entrance into the Bodhisattva Way of Life (Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra) and the Compendium of Training (Śikṣāsamuccaya). Many commentaries have been written on his works, and he remains a central teacher in the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna tradition to this day. Here he is seen reading from his work, as his students listen. The stairway is pictured from the remains at Nālandā, and can still be seen today.
Faxian was the earliest of the great Chinese pilgrims and explorers who came to India in the 5th century and left a Record of the Buddhist Kingdoms (佛國記) he came across in Central Asia and the Indian sub-continent. While on his tour, which lasted 10 years, he gathered original teachings in Sanskrit and Pāḷi, and took them back with him to his homeland where he also translated them. He also described processions with Buddha statues, which is what we see in the relief. Faxian himself is pictured on the left.
Xuanzang is probably the best known of the Chinese pilgrims who visited India and collected texts there. But he almost never made it. Besides the gruellingly hard passage over the Pamir mountains, on the other side he was captured by bandits, who wanted to sacrifice him to their god. The bandits though were swept away by a cyclone, and Xuanzang lived on to accomplish his mission. Xuanzang recorded his experiences in his Records of the Western Regions (大唐西域記). In the relief Xuanzang is seen praying to the Buddha as his captors are about to be blown away.
Xuanzang eventually made it to Nālandā where he studied for many years, and learned all the new Mahāyāna teachings from direct successors of the originators. Xuanzang also traveled to many other places in India, and returned to China with more than six hundred manuscripts. He spent the rest of his life in translation work. He also wrote a number of original works, including a large treatise on Yogācāra Buddhist philosophy, the Treatise giving a Demonstration of Consciousness-only (成唯識論). Here he is pictured on the Dharma-throne giving a lecture while monks listen to him.
King Harṣavardhana ruled the large Kannauj empire in northern India during the 7th century. He was well known as a patron of the arts and philosophy, and was highly praised by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang. According to the latter Harṣa was a devout Buddhist who built monasteries and also hospitals for the sick. He was also a writer and three Sanskrit plays are associated with his name (Ratnāvalī, Nāgānanda and Priyadarśika). Here we see the king with two of his queens giving alms to a line of monastics.
IN MODERN TIMES
Buddhism went into decline in India during the later medieval period, and the colonial period again made things difficult. The fight for the end of colonialism has seen a great revival of interest in Buddhism in the land of its birth.
Anagārika Dharmapāla was part of the movement responsible for the revival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, which was suffering during the colonial rule. In the 1890s he travelled to Bodhgayā where he discovered the temple was no longer under Buddhist control. He then set up the Mahā Bodhi Society to work for its return to Buddhists. The Society also helped in the renovation of the temple in the same decade. Dharmapāla is pictured on the left, next to him is the Mahā Bodhi Temple, and then five monks represent the Saṅgha.
The opposition to colonial rule in India was also strong, and the Independence movement engaged in many tactics to regain control of the country. One of these was Taking Hold of the Truth (Satyagraha), which was a non-violent struggle against the British rule. Mahātma Gandhi and many others worked in this way for Independence. The relief is a copy of a famous photograph with Gandhi in the centre on the Salt March (Dandi Satyagraha) with other leaders of the movement.
Eventually, following the Second World War, Independence was granted to India, and Dr. Ambedkar was tasked with drawing up the Constitution of the new country. In it he enshrined the main principles of the new state: equality under the law; equal rights for all, including the low-castes and women; and that India would be a secular state where all religions would be acknowledged and accepted, besides other things. In the relief we see Dr. Ambedkar on the right, and Jawaharlal Nehru, the country’s first prime minister, sitting at the table, and Rajendra Prasad, the country’s first president in the centre.
Dr. Ambedkar, who was born a low-caste Dalit, had for many years wished to free himself from the Hindu caste system, which he saw as unjust and a drain on society’s potential. After a long period of study, in 1956 he converted to Buddhism along with 500,000 of his followers in Nagpur. Since then the revival of Buddhism has been making steady progress in the land of its birth. Here we see Dr. Ambedkar and his wife Savita making offerings to the Buddha statue, while monastics and laymen look on.
AUSPICIOUS RELIEFS
There are dozens of auspicious reliefs on the Buddhavanam stūpa, normally placed after a number of rows of narrative reliefs. I have chosen some of the best and most representative of the genre to present here.
One man holds a three-tired umbrella over the Vajrāsana (the Diamond Throne, or seat of Awakening), while another holds a pendant, which crosses over the umbrella. Two others, both male, hold their hands in reverential salutation (añjalī). Two Devas in the air fly dynamically while holding offerings in one of their hands. The footprints are not seen on the pedestal under the seat, but we may presume they are indicated by the pedestal itself. There are two cushions of the Vajrāsana. The Bodhi tree here is evidently Gotama Buddha’s Assattha tree.
This is a very elaborate representation of a stūpa, with lions adorning and protecting it at various levels, and a Nāga underneath the Āyaka pillar. In a continuous array Devas and humans are seen to be playing instruments, dancing and worshipping from the circumambulation path upwards. Although it may seem incongruous to us, it appears that dance and music festivals were regularly held at the stūpas.
A simpler representation of the stūpa. What are probably two kings and their queens gather around the stūpa, which has a very elaborate set of umbrellas above the harmika. They are possibly presented horizontally, as presenting them vertically would change the shape of the relief. A standing Buddha is pictured on the stūpa, either to indicate that the stūpa represents him, or perhaps as a commonly seen relief figure on stūpas. The decoration on the stūpa is very simple.
Nāgas and Nāgīs worship, protect and encircle the stūpa. The Nāgas are shown with seven hoods, while their wives have only one. The Nāgas entwined on the stūpa have three heads. In front of the stūpas people are seen ploughing the land. The presence of the stūpa was seen as ensuring the fertility of the land, which accounts for why they were usually built on top of the hills and mountains, and could be seen for miles around.
The Nāga in this representation has five heads, and noticeably a jewelled necklace around its neck. Nāgas are often identified with riches and jewellery, a part of their auspicious iconography. They were also connected with fertility as they were thought to control the rains, and their connection with water is well-established by their habitats being placed under rivers, lakes and oceans. The body is entwined in a symbol of infinity.
The Devas are again seen, this time with both hands full of offerings. This is an aniconic representation and the person of the Buddha is not represented, but is indicated symbolically by the Dharmacakra, symbolising his teaching; the Vajrāsana (His Invincible Seat) indicating his Awakening; and the Buddhapāda (Buddha’s Feet), signifying his presence. Auspicious animals are pictured along the base: lions, an elephant, an ox and a deer.
The Devas have flower offerings, and the humans have fragrant water in vases to pour over the roots of the Bodhi Tree. Decorative animals in the surround above include a deer, oxen, lions and an elephant. Below (and on the protective rail around the tree) are seen stylised flowers. The Buddhapāda and the Vajrāsana are not seen here, but the Bodhi tree indicates the presence of the Buddha.
In this unusual relief four princes or nobles are seen sitting, two are in front of the Buddhapāda, and only one person is seen worshipping. Notice the heavy jewellery hanging from their ears, and the various crests. Two appear to be pointing, and one has his hand in the fearless gesture. The Buddhapāda have only circular indications of the patterns that we may expect to be inscribed there.
A Nāga-king is shown sitting in his palace. Next to him the Nāga-queen appears to be concerned. Two more Nāginīs stand behind the couple, one of whom holds a fan. A noble, who appears to be human, is speaking to the king, and the king appears to ward off his words. There is evidently a narrative behind this representation, but it is not clear what, and it is placed amongst the auspicious reliefs.
I have seen this identified as a Universal Monarch, but the usual signs of such a king are missing. I think myself that this is the Bodhisattva, indicated by the umbrella held over him, but apart from that what else it represents is not clear. On the left one male figure holds a lotus in his right hand, and there are three female figures also, including the umbrella-holder. The ladies all have heavy bracelets on their ankles.
ICONIC FIGURES
The iconic figures at Buddhavanam are much larger than the narrative reliefs, being around 7ft square, the icons are therefore equivalent to three reliefs high and more than two wide. There are eight of them and they are evenly spaced around the stūpa.
Buddha sits holding the Dharmacakramudra, signifying his Turning of the Wheel of the Dharma at Ṛṣipatana near Bārānasī. The composition follows the famous Mathurā sculpture. Devas hover overhead holding offerings. Under the base of the seat are the donors: men, women and a child, who are probably the donors of the original relief. In the centre, deer face a wheel, identifying the positioning of the relief.
The Wheel of Life (Bhavacakra) is held firmly in the jaws of Yama, the king of death (Yamarāja). The theme is the cycle of birth and death. In the centre the bird has hold of the snake’s tail, the snake has hold of the pig’s and the pig has hold of the bird’s, uniting them all. The six main panels represent unenlightened forms of existence, and the outer ring shows the twelve spokes of conditional origination, which explains the driving forces of Saṁsāra.
Avalokiteśvara is known as the Lord of Compassion, who looks down upon all his devotees and helps them whenever they are in need. The four-armed form and iconography of the relief here follows the Tibetan form of the Bodhisattva, holding a lotus in his left hand, and a mālā in his right hand, while the other two hands form a reverential salutation (añjalī). He sits in full lotus posture.
Tārā is a popular figure in Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism, where she is sometimes worshipped as a Bodhisattva, a Devī, and even a Buddha. It appears her cult began sometime around the 6th century CE. The iconography here seems to follow the Tibetan way of portraying her. She holds two flowers by their stalks. She has four main forms, the one portrayed here is Green Tārā.
Mañjuśrī is considered a Bodhisattva in the Mahāyāna tradition, and as a Buddha in the Vajrayāna. He especially embodies wisdom, and is associated with the Prajñāpāramitā literature. He is considered as one of the earliest of the new class of Bodhisattvas to be identified in the Mahāyāna. Here he holds a vajra in his right hand and a bell in his left. The sun, moon and stars are seen on the halo (vyāmaprabhā) behind him.
Maitreya Bodhisattva is believed to be the current Bodhisattva who will be the next and last Sammā Sambuddha in this aeon (kappa). His appearance will only happen after the decline of the present Gautama Buddha’s teaching (Śāsana). At present Maitreya is believed to be in the Tuṣita heaven, where all Bodhisattvas are reborn before descending to earth at the right time. In the Mahāyāna he is considered the founder of the Yogācāra tradition.
Prajñāpāramita started off as an idea of the Perfection of Wisdom, known to all schools of Buddhism as a necessary requirement for the fulfilling of a Bodhisattva’s career; but then the idea became personified. As prajñā is a feminine noun, the personification was feminine. Here she is seen holding the Dharmacakra posture. She sits in full lotus, and wears a Deva-like crown. The halo around her is suitably intricate and complex.
Ācārya Nāgārjuna is pictured sitting on the floor and studying the palm-leaf manuscript in his hand. Presumably this is the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, or perhaps a Prajñāpāramitā text. Around his head is shown a halo, indicating he is a Bodhisattva. Buddhavanam is itself situated in Nāgārjunasāgar, near Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, and can be considered the Patron Saint of the foundation.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Buddhist Heritage of Andhra Pradesh. Tourism Department, No Date Given.
Beal, Samuel. The Romantic Legend of Śākya Buddha. Trubner & Co., 1875.
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. Elements of Buddhist Iconography. Munshiram Manoharlal, 1998.
Elsner, Jaś. Amarāvatī Art and Buddhism in Ancient India. Reaktion Books, 2024.
Knox, Robert. Amaravati, Buddhist Sculpture from the Great Stūpa. British Museum Press, 1992.
Krishna Murthy, Konakondla. Nārārjunakoṇḍā, A Cultural Study. Concept Publishing Company, 1977.
Padma, Sree, and A. W. Barber. Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra. State University of New York Press, 2008.
Ramachandra Rao, P. R. The Art of Nāgārjunakonda. 2nd ed., Department of Tourism, 2001.
Sarkar, H., and S. P. Nainar. Amaravati. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 2003.
Settar, S. Early Buddhist Artisans and Their Architectural Vocabulary. Manipal Universal Press, 2020.
Shimada, Akira. Early Buddhist Architecture in Context, The Great Stūpa at Amarāvatī (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE). Brill, 2013.
Shimada, Akira (ed.)., and Michael, Willis (ed.). Amaravati: The Art of an Early Buddhist Monument in Context. The British Museum, 2016.
Sivanagi Reddy, E. Buddhist Archeology in Telangana. Telangana Tourism, 2010.
Sivaramamurti, C. Amaravati Sxulptures in the Madras Government Museum. Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum, 1956.
Subramaniam, K. R. Buddhist Remains in Āndhra and The History of Āndhra between 225 & 610 A.D. 1932.
LINKS
Ajahn Brahmali (trans.). The Chapter on Robes. Sutta Central, https://suttacentral.net/pli-tv-kd8/en/brahmali.
---. The Chapter on the Group of Five Hundred. Sutta Central, https://suttacentral.net/pli-tv-kd21/en/brahmali.
---. The Chapter on the Group of Seven Hundred. Sutta Central, https://suttacentral.net/pli-tv-kd22/en/brahmali.
Aśvaghoṣa, Ven. and E. B. Cowell (trans.). Buddha-Carita, or Life of Buddha. Ancient Buddhist Texts, 2003, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/et/Buddhacarita/.
Ānandajoti Bhikkhu (trans.). Exalted Utterances - Udāna (KN 3). Ancient Buddhist Texts, 2011, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English-Texts/Exalted-Utterances/.
---. Safeguard Recitals a Book of Protection Chants. Ancient Buddhist Texts, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/Texts-and-Translations/Safeguard/.
---. The Discourse about the Great Emancipation. Ancient Buddhist Texts, 2008, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English-Texts/Great-Emancipation/.
---. The Discourse Concerning Gotamī (AN 8.51). Ancient Buddhist Texts, 2014, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/et/Gotami/01-Gotami.htm.
---. The Extended Mahāvaṁsa Asoka and the Missions. Ancient Buddhist Texts, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/Texts-and-Translations/Asokan-Missions/.
---. The Stories about the Foremost Elder Nuns. Ancient Buddhist Texts, 2015, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English-Texts/Foremost-Elder-Nuns/.
---. The Way to the Beyond. Ancient Buddhist Texts, 2007, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/et/Way-to-the-Beyond/.
Bhikkhu Sujato (trans.). Advice to Anāthapiṇḍika. Sutta Central, https://suttacentral.net/mn143/en/sujato.
---. The Analysis of the Elements. Sutta Central, https://suttacentral.net/mn140/en/sujato.
---. With Aṅgulimāla. Sutta Central, https://suttacentral.net/mn86/en/sujato.
---. With Kūṭadanta. Sutta Central, https://suttacentral.net/dn5/en/sujato.
Bodhinidhi Translation Group. The Exemplary Tale of Śārdūlakarṇa. 84000.co, 2025, https://84000.co/translation/toh358#UT22084-076-012-translation.
Burlingame, Eugene Watson, and revised by Anandajoti Bhikkhu. Dhamma Verses Commentary. Ancient Buddhist Texts, 2024, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English-Texts/Dhamma-Verses-Comm/.
Cowell (ed.), E. B., and Revised by Ānandajoti Bhikkhu. The Birth Stories (Jātaka-Aṭṭhakathā). Ancient Buddhist Texts, 2023, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/et/Jataka/.
Mingun Sayādaw, and Revised by Ānandajoti Bhikkhu. The Great Chronicles of the Buddhas. Ancient Buddhist Texts, 2014, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/et/Great-Chronicles/.
Oldenberg, Hermann. The Chronicle of the Island (Dīpavaṁsa ). Ancient Buddhist Texts, https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English-Texts/Chronicle-of-the-Island/.
Photographs and Text by Ānandajoti Bhikkhu
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License